Mosquito-Relish Diplomacy
Emperor Ping’s Charter and Hill-Valley Dynamics between China and Thailand
Abstract
The Mien and some other Yao peoples of southern China and adjacent countries in Southeast Asia have a curious document that is known as Emperor Ping’s Charter (Chinese: Pinghuang quandie) or the License for Crossing the Mountains (Chinese: Guoshanbang, Mien: Jie sen borngv). The text of the document provides a somewhat fantastic account of the origins of the Yao people, and declares that because of their ancestor’s favor to the Chinese Emperor then the Emperor granted them certain favors in return. Chinese scholars and some Westerners draw on the document for dates regarding interactions between the Chinese and the Yao. More recently some Western scholars have emphatically declared the document a fake that was made up by the Yao in order to strike beneficial deals with the Chinese authorities. We offer a third perspective by drawing on cases of hill-valley relations across Mainland Southeast Asia. For millennia, highland peoples provided valuable trade goods for lowland markets, including for international trade, and also served as border guards and significant allies of lowland courts. Trade and interethnic alliances contributed to the shaping of social life in Mainland Southeast Asia and adjacent southern China for millennia. The available historical evidence suggests that multiethnic networks were common, and further that they drew on efforts to promote peace and security.
References
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____. 2011. Commemorating the ancestors’ merit: Myth, schema, and history in the Charter of Emperor Ping. Taiwan Journal of Anthropology 9, 1: 19-65.
____. 2016. From Yao to now: Daoism and the imperialization of the China/Southeast Asia borderlands. Asian Ethnicity 18, 2: 1-17.
Andaya, Barbara Watson and Leonard Andaya. 2015. A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Archaimbault, Charles. 1964. Religious structures in Laos. Jane R. Hanks, trans. Journal of the Siam Society 52, 1: 57-74.
Aroonrut Wichienkeeo and Gehan Wijeyewardene, trans. and eds. 1986. The Laws of King Mangrai. Canberra: Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University.
Baker, Chris and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2017. A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bernatzik, H.A. 1970 [German original 1947]. Akha and Miao: Problems of Applied Anthropology in Farther India. Translated by Alois Nagler. New Haven, CT: Human Relations Area Files.
____. 2005 [original 1937]. The Spirits of the Yellow Leaves: The Enigmatic Hunter-Gatherers of Northern Thailand. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Bouté, Vanina. 2015. An ethnohistory of highland societies in northern Laos. Journal of Lao Studies 5, 2: 54-76.
____. 2017. De l’essartage à la culture de l’hévéa. Mutations dans l’usage et les représentations de la forêt au nord de la péninsule Indochinoise [From forest clearings to rubber cultivation : Changes in the use and representation of forests in the north of the Indochina peninsula]. Péninsule 75, 2: 99-127.
____. 2018. Mirroring Power: Ethnogenesis and Integration among the Phunoy of Northern Laos. Chiangmai: Silkworm Books.
Chen, Meiwen. 2015. Religion as a civilizing process? Rethinking Yao religious culture and ritual manuscripts. Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre, and Folklore 187: 155-209.
Condominas, Georges. 1990. From Lawa to Mon, from Saa to Thai: Historical and Anthropological Aspects of Southeast Asian Social Spaces. Canberra: Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University.
Cushman, Jennifer Wayne. 1993. Fields from the Sea: Chinese Junk Trade with Siam during the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.
Cushman, Richard D. 1970. Rebel Haunts and Lotus Huts: Problems in the Ethnohistory of the Yao. PhD dissertation, Cornell University.
Cushman, Richard D. and David K. Wyatt. 2000. The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Dai, Yingchong. 2009. The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Drakard, Jane. 1990. A Malay Frontier: Unity and Duality in a Sumatran Kingdom. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.
Dunn, F.L. 1975. Rain Forest Collectors and Traders: A Study of Resource Utilization in Modern and Ancient Malaya. Kuala Lumpur: Monographs of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Enfield, N.J. 2005. Areal linguistics and Mainland Southeast Asia. Annual Review of Anthropology 34, 1: 181-206.
Faure, David and Ho Ts’ui-p’ing. 2013. Preface. In David Faure and Ho Ts’ui P’ing, eds., Chieftains into Ancestors: Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China, xi-xii. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press.
Fiskesjö, Magnus. 2006. Rescuing the empire: Chinese nation-building in the twentieth century. European Journal of East Asian Studies 5, 1: 15-44.
Geddes, William R. 1976. Migrants of the Mountains: The Cultural Ecology of the Blue Miao of Thailand. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Giersch, C. Patterson. 2006. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China’s Yunnan Frontier. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hanks, Jane Richardson and Lucien M. Hanks. 2001. Tribes of the North Thailand Frontier. Foreword by Nicola Tannenbaum. New Haven, CT: Yale Southeast Asia Studies.
Harrell, Steven, ed. 1995. Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Hayami, Yoko. 2004. Between Hills and Plains: Power and Practice in Socio-Religious Dynamics among Karen. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press.
____. 2011. Pagodas and prophets: Contesting sacred space and power among Buddhist Karen in Karen State. Journal of Asian Studies 70, 4: 1083-1105.
Herman, John E. 2007. Amid the Clouds and Mist: China’s Colonization of Guizhou, 1200-1700. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Huang, Yu. 1991. A preliminary study of King Ping’s Charter. In Jacques Lemoine and Chiao Chien, eds., The Yao of South China: Recent International Studies, 89-123. Paris: Pangu.
Jao, Tsung-I. 1991. Some remarks on the Yao Documents found in Thailand and edited by Yoshiro Shiratori. In Jacques Lemoine and Chiao Chien, eds., The Yao of South China: Recent International Studies, 125-144. Paris: Pangu.
Jonsson, Hjorleifur. 1999. Moving house: Migration and the place of the household on the Thai periphery. Journal of the Siam Society 87: 99-118.
____. 2005. Mien Relations: Mountain People and State Control in Thailand. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
____. 2009. War’s ontogeny: Militias and ethnic boundaries in Laos and exile. Southeast Asian Studies 47, 2: 125-149.
____. 2014. Slow Anthropology: Negotiating Difference with the Iu Mien. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.
____. 2018. States. In Hillary Callan and Carol J. Greenhouse, eds., International Encyclopedia of Anthropology, vol. 9. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
____. 2020. Good attachment in the Asian highlands: questioning notions of “loose women” and “autonomous communities.” Critical Asian Studies 52, 3: 403-428.
Kirsch, A. Thomas. 1973. Feasting and Social Oscillation: Religion and Society in Upland Southeast Asia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program.
____. 1977. Complexity in the Thai religious system: an interpretation. Journal of Asian Studies 36, 2: 241-266.
____. 1984. Cosmology and ecology as factors in interpreting early Thai social organization. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 15, 2: 253-265.
Kojima, Takahiro and Nathan Badenoch. 2013. From tea to temples to texts: Transformations of the interfaces of upland-lowland interaction on the China-Myanmar border. Southeast Asian Studies 2, 1: 95-131.
Kraisri Nimmanhaeminda. 1965. An inscribed silver-plate grant to the Lawa of Boh Luang. In Felicitation Volumes of Southeast Asian Studies Presented to His Highness Prince Dhani Nivat, vol. 2, 233-238. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
____. 1967. The Lawa Guardian Spirits of Chiangmai. Journal of the Siam Society 55, 2: 185-225.
Kraisri Nimmanhaeminda and Julian Hartland-Swann. 1962. Expedition to the Khon Pa (or Phi Tong Luang?). Journal of the Siam Society 50, 2: 165-186.
Le, Jiem Tsan, Richard D. Cushman, and Hjorleifur Jonsson. 2016. Highland chiefs and regional networks in mainland Southeast Asia: Mien perspectives. Southeast Asian Studies 5, 3: 515-551.
Leach, Edmund R. 1954. Political Systems of Highland Burma. Boston: Beacon Press.
Lemoine, Jacques. 1983. Yao religion and society. In John McKinnon and Wanat Bhruksasri, eds., Highlanders of Thailand, 195-211. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
____. 1991. Yao culture and some other related problems. In Jacques Lemoine and Chiao Chien, eds., The Yao of South China: Recent International Studies, 591-612. Paris: Pangu.
Litzinger, Ralph. 2000. Other Chinas: The Yao and the Politics of National Belonging. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Manguin, Pierre-Yves. 2002. The amorphous nature of coastal polities in Insular Southeast Asia: Restricted centers, extended peripheries. Moussons 5: 73-99.
McKinnon, John and Wanat Bhrusasri, eds. 1983. Highlanders of Thailand. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
McKinnon, John and Bernard Vienne, eds. 1989. Hill Tribes Today: Problems in Change. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Nai Chan Rangsiyanan and Luang Bamrung Naowakarn. 1925. The Yao. Journal of the Siam Society 19, 2: 83-128.
O’Connor, Richard. 1995. Agricultural change and ethnic succession in Southeast Asian states: A case for regional anthropology. Journal of Asian Studies 54, 4: 968-996.
____. 2000. A regional explanation of the Tai Muang as a city state. In M.H. Hansen, ed. A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures, 431-443. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.
Pourret, Jess G. 2002. The Yao: The Mien and Mun Yao in China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Bangkok: River Books.
Renard, Ronald D. 1980. Kariang: History of Karen-Thai Relations from the Beginnings to 1923. PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii.
____. 1986. The integration of Karens in Northern Thai political life during the Nineteenth Century. In R.D. Renard, ed. Anuson Walter Vella, 229-248. Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa, Center for Asian and Pacific Studies.
____. 1987. The delineation of the Kayah State frontiers with Thailand, 1809-1894. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 18(1): 81-92.
____. 2000. The differential integration of hill people into the Thai state. In Andrew Turton, ed., Civility and Savagery: Social Identity in Tai States, 63-83. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon.
____. 2002. On the possibility of early Karen settlement in the Chiangmai Valley. In Yukio Hayashi and Aroonrut Wichienkeo, eds., Interethnic Relations in the Making of Southeast Asia and Southern China, 59-84. Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.
Sanidh Rangsit, M.C. 1965. Additional note on the silver-plate grant from Boh Luang. In Felicitation Volumes of Southeast Asian Studies Presented to His Highness Prince Dhani Nivat, vol. 2, 239-240. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Schafer, Edward. 1967. The Vermillion Bird: T’ang Images of the South. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Scott, James C. 2009. The Art of Not being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Shin, Leo K. 2006. The Making of the Chinese State: Ethnicity and Expansion on the Ming Borderlands. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shiratori, Yoshiro. 1975. Yojin Monjo [Yao Documents]. Tokyo: Kodansha.
____. 1978. Tonan Ajia Sanchi Minzokushi [Ethnography of the Hill Tribes of Southeast Asia]. Tokyo: Kodansha.
Siam Society, The. 1963. Phi Tong Leuang, documentary film. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Strickmann, Michel. 1982. The Tao among the Yao: Taoism and the Sinification of the South. In Reikishi ni okeru minshu to bunka: Sakai Tadao sensei koki shukuga kinen [Peoples and Cultures in Asian History: Festschrift for Professor Tadao Sakai], 23-30. Tokyo: Kokusho kankokai.
Stübel, Hans. 1938. The Yao of the Province of Kuangtung. Monumenta Serica 3, 3: 345-384.
Sunait Chutintaranond. 1990. Mandala, segmentary state, and the politics of centralization in Medieval Ayutthaya. Journal of the Siam Society 78, 1: 88-100.
Sunait Chutintaranond and Chris Baker, eds. 2002. Recalling Local Pasts: Autonomous History in Southeast Asia. Chiangmai: Silkworm Books.
Taylor, Keith W. 1986. Authority and legitimacy in 11th century Vietnam. In David Marr and A.C. Milner, eds., Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, 136-176. Singapore: Institute for Southeast Asian Studies.
ter Haar, Barend J. 1998. A new interpretation of the Yao Charters. In Paul van der Velde and Alex McKay, eds., New Developments in Asian Studies: An Introduction, 3-19. London and New York: Kegan Paul International.
Theeraphan Leuang Thongkham. 1991. Kia Shen Pong, Guo Shan Bang: Passport for Travelling in the Hills (in Thai and English translation). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Faculty of Arts, Linguistics Research Unit.
Tran, Ky Phuong. 2010. Interactions between uplands and lowlands through the riverine exchange network of Central Vietnam – A case study of the Thu Bon River Valley. In B. Bellina, E.A. Bacus, T.O. Pryce, and J.W Christie, eds. 50 Years of Archaeology in Southeast Asia: Essays in Honor of Ian Glover, 207-215. Bangkok: River Books.
Wade, Geoffrey. 2015. The “native office” system: A Chinese mechanism for southern territorial expansion over two millennia. In Geoffrey Wade, ed., Asian Expansions: The Historical Experiences of Polity Expansion in Asia, 69-91. New York: Routledge.
Walker, Anthony, ed. 1992. The Highland Heritage: Collected Essays on Upland North Thailand. Singapore: Suvarnabhumi Books.
White, Joyce C. 1995. Incorporating heterarchy into theory on socio-political development: the case from Southeast Asia. In Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carole M. Crumley, and Janet E. Levy, eds., Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, 101-123. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association.
____. 2011. Emergence of cultural diversity in Mainland Southeast Asia: a view from prehistory. In N.J. Enfield, ed., Dynamics of Human Diversity: The Case of Mainland Southeast Asia, 9-46. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Wiens, Herold J. 1954. China’s March Toward the Tropics. Hamden, CT: Shoestring Press.
____. 2011. Commemorating the ancestors’ merit: Myth, schema, and history in the Charter of Emperor Ping. Taiwan Journal of Anthropology 9, 1: 19-65.
____. 2016. From Yao to now: Daoism and the imperialization of the China/Southeast Asia borderlands. Asian Ethnicity 18, 2: 1-17.
Andaya, Barbara Watson and Leonard Andaya. 2015. A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1830. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Archaimbault, Charles. 1964. Religious structures in Laos. Jane R. Hanks, trans. Journal of the Siam Society 52, 1: 57-74.
Aroonrut Wichienkeeo and Gehan Wijeyewardene, trans. and eds. 1986. The Laws of King Mangrai. Canberra: Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University.
Baker, Chris and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2017. A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bernatzik, H.A. 1970 [German original 1947]. Akha and Miao: Problems of Applied Anthropology in Farther India. Translated by Alois Nagler. New Haven, CT: Human Relations Area Files.
____. 2005 [original 1937]. The Spirits of the Yellow Leaves: The Enigmatic Hunter-Gatherers of Northern Thailand. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Bouté, Vanina. 2015. An ethnohistory of highland societies in northern Laos. Journal of Lao Studies 5, 2: 54-76.
____. 2017. De l’essartage à la culture de l’hévéa. Mutations dans l’usage et les représentations de la forêt au nord de la péninsule Indochinoise [From forest clearings to rubber cultivation : Changes in the use and representation of forests in the north of the Indochina peninsula]. Péninsule 75, 2: 99-127.
____. 2018. Mirroring Power: Ethnogenesis and Integration among the Phunoy of Northern Laos. Chiangmai: Silkworm Books.
Chen, Meiwen. 2015. Religion as a civilizing process? Rethinking Yao religious culture and ritual manuscripts. Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre, and Folklore 187: 155-209.
Condominas, Georges. 1990. From Lawa to Mon, from Saa to Thai: Historical and Anthropological Aspects of Southeast Asian Social Spaces. Canberra: Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University.
Cushman, Jennifer Wayne. 1993. Fields from the Sea: Chinese Junk Trade with Siam during the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.
Cushman, Richard D. 1970. Rebel Haunts and Lotus Huts: Problems in the Ethnohistory of the Yao. PhD dissertation, Cornell University.
Cushman, Richard D. and David K. Wyatt. 2000. The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Dai, Yingchong. 2009. The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Drakard, Jane. 1990. A Malay Frontier: Unity and Duality in a Sumatran Kingdom. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.
Dunn, F.L. 1975. Rain Forest Collectors and Traders: A Study of Resource Utilization in Modern and Ancient Malaya. Kuala Lumpur: Monographs of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Enfield, N.J. 2005. Areal linguistics and Mainland Southeast Asia. Annual Review of Anthropology 34, 1: 181-206.
Faure, David and Ho Ts’ui-p’ing. 2013. Preface. In David Faure and Ho Ts’ui P’ing, eds., Chieftains into Ancestors: Imperial Expansion and Indigenous Society in Southwest China, xi-xii. Vancouver, BC: University of British Columbia Press.
Fiskesjö, Magnus. 2006. Rescuing the empire: Chinese nation-building in the twentieth century. European Journal of East Asian Studies 5, 1: 15-44.
Geddes, William R. 1976. Migrants of the Mountains: The Cultural Ecology of the Blue Miao of Thailand. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Giersch, C. Patterson. 2006. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China’s Yunnan Frontier. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hanks, Jane Richardson and Lucien M. Hanks. 2001. Tribes of the North Thailand Frontier. Foreword by Nicola Tannenbaum. New Haven, CT: Yale Southeast Asia Studies.
Harrell, Steven, ed. 1995. Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Hayami, Yoko. 2004. Between Hills and Plains: Power and Practice in Socio-Religious Dynamics among Karen. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press.
____. 2011. Pagodas and prophets: Contesting sacred space and power among Buddhist Karen in Karen State. Journal of Asian Studies 70, 4: 1083-1105.
Herman, John E. 2007. Amid the Clouds and Mist: China’s Colonization of Guizhou, 1200-1700. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Huang, Yu. 1991. A preliminary study of King Ping’s Charter. In Jacques Lemoine and Chiao Chien, eds., The Yao of South China: Recent International Studies, 89-123. Paris: Pangu.
Jao, Tsung-I. 1991. Some remarks on the Yao Documents found in Thailand and edited by Yoshiro Shiratori. In Jacques Lemoine and Chiao Chien, eds., The Yao of South China: Recent International Studies, 125-144. Paris: Pangu.
Jonsson, Hjorleifur. 1999. Moving house: Migration and the place of the household on the Thai periphery. Journal of the Siam Society 87: 99-118.
____. 2005. Mien Relations: Mountain People and State Control in Thailand. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
____. 2009. War’s ontogeny: Militias and ethnic boundaries in Laos and exile. Southeast Asian Studies 47, 2: 125-149.
____. 2014. Slow Anthropology: Negotiating Difference with the Iu Mien. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications.
____. 2018. States. In Hillary Callan and Carol J. Greenhouse, eds., International Encyclopedia of Anthropology, vol. 9. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
____. 2020. Good attachment in the Asian highlands: questioning notions of “loose women” and “autonomous communities.” Critical Asian Studies 52, 3: 403-428.
Kirsch, A. Thomas. 1973. Feasting and Social Oscillation: Religion and Society in Upland Southeast Asia. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program.
____. 1977. Complexity in the Thai religious system: an interpretation. Journal of Asian Studies 36, 2: 241-266.
____. 1984. Cosmology and ecology as factors in interpreting early Thai social organization. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 15, 2: 253-265.
Kojima, Takahiro and Nathan Badenoch. 2013. From tea to temples to texts: Transformations of the interfaces of upland-lowland interaction on the China-Myanmar border. Southeast Asian Studies 2, 1: 95-131.
Kraisri Nimmanhaeminda. 1965. An inscribed silver-plate grant to the Lawa of Boh Luang. In Felicitation Volumes of Southeast Asian Studies Presented to His Highness Prince Dhani Nivat, vol. 2, 233-238. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
____. 1967. The Lawa Guardian Spirits of Chiangmai. Journal of the Siam Society 55, 2: 185-225.
Kraisri Nimmanhaeminda and Julian Hartland-Swann. 1962. Expedition to the Khon Pa (or Phi Tong Luang?). Journal of the Siam Society 50, 2: 165-186.
Le, Jiem Tsan, Richard D. Cushman, and Hjorleifur Jonsson. 2016. Highland chiefs and regional networks in mainland Southeast Asia: Mien perspectives. Southeast Asian Studies 5, 3: 515-551.
Leach, Edmund R. 1954. Political Systems of Highland Burma. Boston: Beacon Press.
Lemoine, Jacques. 1983. Yao religion and society. In John McKinnon and Wanat Bhruksasri, eds., Highlanders of Thailand, 195-211. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
____. 1991. Yao culture and some other related problems. In Jacques Lemoine and Chiao Chien, eds., The Yao of South China: Recent International Studies, 591-612. Paris: Pangu.
Litzinger, Ralph. 2000. Other Chinas: The Yao and the Politics of National Belonging. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Manguin, Pierre-Yves. 2002. The amorphous nature of coastal polities in Insular Southeast Asia: Restricted centers, extended peripheries. Moussons 5: 73-99.
McKinnon, John and Wanat Bhrusasri, eds. 1983. Highlanders of Thailand. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
McKinnon, John and Bernard Vienne, eds. 1989. Hill Tribes Today: Problems in Change. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Nai Chan Rangsiyanan and Luang Bamrung Naowakarn. 1925. The Yao. Journal of the Siam Society 19, 2: 83-128.
O’Connor, Richard. 1995. Agricultural change and ethnic succession in Southeast Asian states: A case for regional anthropology. Journal of Asian Studies 54, 4: 968-996.
____. 2000. A regional explanation of the Tai Muang as a city state. In M.H. Hansen, ed. A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures, 431-443. Copenhagen: The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.
Pourret, Jess G. 2002. The Yao: The Mien and Mun Yao in China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Bangkok: River Books.
Renard, Ronald D. 1980. Kariang: History of Karen-Thai Relations from the Beginnings to 1923. PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii.
____. 1986. The integration of Karens in Northern Thai political life during the Nineteenth Century. In R.D. Renard, ed. Anuson Walter Vella, 229-248. Honolulu: University of Hawaii at Manoa, Center for Asian and Pacific Studies.
____. 1987. The delineation of the Kayah State frontiers with Thailand, 1809-1894. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 18(1): 81-92.
____. 2000. The differential integration of hill people into the Thai state. In Andrew Turton, ed., Civility and Savagery: Social Identity in Tai States, 63-83. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon.
____. 2002. On the possibility of early Karen settlement in the Chiangmai Valley. In Yukio Hayashi and Aroonrut Wichienkeo, eds., Interethnic Relations in the Making of Southeast Asia and Southern China, 59-84. Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University.
Sanidh Rangsit, M.C. 1965. Additional note on the silver-plate grant from Boh Luang. In Felicitation Volumes of Southeast Asian Studies Presented to His Highness Prince Dhani Nivat, vol. 2, 239-240. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Schafer, Edward. 1967. The Vermillion Bird: T’ang Images of the South. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Scott, James C. 2009. The Art of Not being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Shin, Leo K. 2006. The Making of the Chinese State: Ethnicity and Expansion on the Ming Borderlands. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Shiratori, Yoshiro. 1975. Yojin Monjo [Yao Documents]. Tokyo: Kodansha.
____. 1978. Tonan Ajia Sanchi Minzokushi [Ethnography of the Hill Tribes of Southeast Asia]. Tokyo: Kodansha.
Siam Society, The. 1963. Phi Tong Leuang, documentary film. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Strickmann, Michel. 1982. The Tao among the Yao: Taoism and the Sinification of the South. In Reikishi ni okeru minshu to bunka: Sakai Tadao sensei koki shukuga kinen [Peoples and Cultures in Asian History: Festschrift for Professor Tadao Sakai], 23-30. Tokyo: Kokusho kankokai.
Stübel, Hans. 1938. The Yao of the Province of Kuangtung. Monumenta Serica 3, 3: 345-384.
Sunait Chutintaranond. 1990. Mandala, segmentary state, and the politics of centralization in Medieval Ayutthaya. Journal of the Siam Society 78, 1: 88-100.
Sunait Chutintaranond and Chris Baker, eds. 2002. Recalling Local Pasts: Autonomous History in Southeast Asia. Chiangmai: Silkworm Books.
Taylor, Keith W. 1986. Authority and legitimacy in 11th century Vietnam. In David Marr and A.C. Milner, eds., Southeast Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries, 136-176. Singapore: Institute for Southeast Asian Studies.
ter Haar, Barend J. 1998. A new interpretation of the Yao Charters. In Paul van der Velde and Alex McKay, eds., New Developments in Asian Studies: An Introduction, 3-19. London and New York: Kegan Paul International.
Theeraphan Leuang Thongkham. 1991. Kia Shen Pong, Guo Shan Bang: Passport for Travelling in the Hills (in Thai and English translation). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Faculty of Arts, Linguistics Research Unit.
Tran, Ky Phuong. 2010. Interactions between uplands and lowlands through the riverine exchange network of Central Vietnam – A case study of the Thu Bon River Valley. In B. Bellina, E.A. Bacus, T.O. Pryce, and J.W Christie, eds. 50 Years of Archaeology in Southeast Asia: Essays in Honor of Ian Glover, 207-215. Bangkok: River Books.
Wade, Geoffrey. 2015. The “native office” system: A Chinese mechanism for southern territorial expansion over two millennia. In Geoffrey Wade, ed., Asian Expansions: The Historical Experiences of Polity Expansion in Asia, 69-91. New York: Routledge.
Walker, Anthony, ed. 1992. The Highland Heritage: Collected Essays on Upland North Thailand. Singapore: Suvarnabhumi Books.
White, Joyce C. 1995. Incorporating heterarchy into theory on socio-political development: the case from Southeast Asia. In Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carole M. Crumley, and Janet E. Levy, eds., Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, 101-123. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association.
____. 2011. Emergence of cultural diversity in Mainland Southeast Asia: a view from prehistory. In N.J. Enfield, ed., Dynamics of Human Diversity: The Case of Mainland Southeast Asia, 9-46. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Wiens, Herold J. 1954. China’s March Toward the Tropics. Hamden, CT: Shoestring Press.
