Tripura in Thai and Cambodian Epigraphy: Evidence from Indian Literature
Abstract
This article centers around the expression tripura mentioned in the Sukhothai Inscription I of Ram Khamhaeng dated 1292 CE, in the Wat Chiang Man inscription dated 1581 CE, and in the poem Kamsuan Samut attributed to the Ayutthayan poet Si Prat. The term tripura is examined in Sanskrit and Khmer language Cambodian inscriptions before Sukhothai, and in the Indian Sanskrit literature, spanning over three millennia (1500 BCE to 1400 CE). The ancient Cambodians worshipped a Tripurāntaka image of Śiva in their temples. The Siamese built commemorative tripura-cities like their Indian counterparts.
References
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Bradley, Cornelius Breach. 1909. “The Oldest Known Writing in Siamese. The Inscription of Phra Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhothai, 1293 A.D”. JSS, 6(1): 1-64.
Brahma Purāṇa. 2004. Translated and annotated by a board of scholars. Part IV. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Brooks, Douglas Renfrew. 1992. The Secret of Three Cities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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_____. 1924. Recueil des inscriptions du Siam. Première partie: Inscriptions de Sukhodaya. Bangkok: Bangkok Times Press.
_____. 1937. Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vol. I. Hanoi: Imprimerie d’Extrême-Orient
_____. 1944. “Une nouvelle inscription of Ayutthaya.” JSS, 35.
_____. 1952. Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vol. 4. Paris: E. de Boccard.
_____. 1954. Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vol. 6. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient.
_____. 1964. Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vol. 7. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient.
_____. 1975. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Canberra: Australian National University Press.
Cowell, E.B. and F.W. Thomas. 1897. The Harsa-Carita of Bana. London: Royal Asiatic Society.
Cushman, Richard D. 2000. The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya. A Synoptic Translation. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Dagens, Bruno. 1994. Mayamatam. Treatise of Housing, Architecture and Iconography. Vols. I-II: New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.
Deshpande, N.A. (tr.). 1991. The Padma-Purāṇa, part VIII. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Dvivedi, Dasaratha and Rajanarayana Upadhyaya (ed.). 1999. Tripuravadha by Śrī Vatsarāja. Sarasvatī-bhavana-granthamālā (vol. 137). Varanasi: Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya.
Eggling, Julius. trans. 1894. The Shatapatha Brahmana. According to the Text of the Madhyandina School. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Erdosy, George. 2012. The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity: Walter de Gruyter.
Filliozat, Jean. 1965 “Kailasaparmpara.” In Felicitation Volumes of South-East Asian Studies Presented to H.H. Prince Dhani Nivat. Vol. II. Bangkok; reprinted in Laghu=Prabandhah, Choix d’articles d’Indologie par Jean Filliozat. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974.
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Friedman, Bruno. 1977. “Thai phallic amulets.” JSS, 65(2).
Gerd J.R. Mevissen. 2016. “Three Royal Temple Foundations in South India: Tripurantaka Imagery as a Statement of Political Power.” In Temple Architecture and Imagery of South and Southeast Asia. Prasādanidhi: Papers presented to Professor M.A. Dhaky. Delhi: Aryan Books International.
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_____. 1977b. “The inscription of Vat Jyaṅ Hmān (Wat Chiang Man). Epigraphic and Historical Studies no 18.” JSS, 65(2).
Groslier, Bernard-Philippe. 1981. “Les Syam Kuk des bas-reliefs d’Angkor Vat”. In Orients: Pour George Condominas. Paris: Sudestasie.
Hazra, Rajendra Chandra. 1987. Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Karmarkar, R.D. (ed. and trans.). 2001. Meghadūta of Kalidāsa. Delhi: Chaukhambha Sanskrit Pratisthan.
Kirsch, Thomas. 1977. “Complexity in Thai Religious Systems: An Interpretation.” Journal of Asian Studies, 36(2).
Kramrisch, Stella. 2007. The Presence of Siva. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Kuanpoonpol, Priyawat.1990. “Court Brahmans of Thailand and the Celebration of the Brahman New Year.” Indo-Iranian Journal, 33(1).
Lidova, Natalia. 1994. Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Leena, Chandra K. 2017. “A Brief Study of Dasarupaka of Viswanatha.” Journal of Hindi and Sanskrit Research, 15.
Macdonell and Keith. 1912. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. London: John Murray.
Majumdar, Kamalika. 2013. “Real Import of the Word ‘Pura’ and the Arya-Dasa Systems in the Rig Veda.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 74: 48-53.
Martin, Judith G. The Function of Mythic Figures in the Tirumantiram. Thesis submitted to Mac Master University. https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/14086/1/fulltext.pdf
Sundarman, T.P. Meenakshi. 1966. “Tirupavai, Tiruvempavai in South East Asia”. In Proceedings of the of First International Conference of Tamil Studies, I: 13-20.
Monier-Williams, Monier.1899. Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Mukhopadhyaya, Bh. S. 1951. “The Tripura Episode in Sanskrit Literature.” Journal of Ganganath Jha Research Institute, 8: 37-95
Nagaswamy, R. ‘Tripurāntaka, Vinadhara dakshina murti or kirata murti?’ http://tamilartacademy.com/journals/volume2/articles/tripurantaka. html.
O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. 1980. The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Oldenburg, Hermann. 1897. Vedic Hymns. Part II. Hymns to Agni (mandala1-5). Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass (Sacred Books of the East, vol. 46).
Pal, Pratapaditya. 1987. “The Gift of Books According to the Devīpurāṇa.” In M.S. Nagaraj Rao (ed.), Kusumāñjali. New Interpretation of Indian Art and Culture. Sh C. Sivaramamurti Commemoration Volume. Delhi: Agama Kala Prakashan.
Pankaja, Liesbeth Benniink. 2016. Sutra Journal http://www.sutrajournal.com/the-dance-of-shiva-by-liesbeth-pankaja.
Pavie, Auguste. 1898. Mission Pavie. Indochine, 1879-1895. Etudes Diverses II. Recherches sur l’histoire du Cambodge, du Laos et du Siam. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Penzer, N.M. 1924-28. The Ocean of Story, Being C.H. Tawney’s Translation of Somadeva’s Kathasarit Sagara (or Ocean of Stream of Stories). Vols. 1-10. London. Reprint Motilal Banarasidass, 1968.
Pills, Karen. 2013. Interpreting Devotion: The Poetry and Legacy of a Female Bhakti Saint of India. Delhi: Routledge India.
Poolthupya, Srisurang. 1979. Thai Intellectual and Literary World. Bangkok: Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University.
Pou, Saveros. 1992. An Old Khmer-French-English Dictionary. Paris: Cedoreck.
Rao, T.A, Gopinath. 1997. Elements of Hindu iconography. Vol. 2, part I-II. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Sahai, Sachchidanand. 2009. Preah Vihear. An Introduction to the World Heritage Monument. Phnom Penh: UNESCO
Sahityadarpana by Visvanatha. 2007. Varanasi: Vidya Bhawan.
Sampaongern, Pongdhan (ed.). 2015. Si Thep. The Centre of Early Civilization in Pa Sak Valley. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department.
Saraswathi, Ramanand (trans.). Tripura Rahasya or Mystery beyond the Trinity. Tiruvannamali: Ramanasramam. https://archive.org/details/Tripura Rahasya.
Sastri, Gaurinath. 1960. A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Calcutta: Oxford University Press.
Schmitt, S. 1885. Deux anciennes inscriptions Siamoises. Bangkok.
Shankar, Bindu S. 2004. Dance Imagery in South Indian Temples: Study of the 108 karana sculptures. Dissertation, Ohio State University.
Shendge, Malati J. 2003. The Civilized Demons: the Harappans in Rigveda. Delhi: Abhinava Publications.
Schwindler, Gary J. 1987. “Speculations on the theme of Siva as Tripurantaka as it appears during the reign of Rajaraja I in the Tanjore area ca. A.D. 1000.” Ars Orientalis, 17: 163-78.
Singh, Sarva Daman. 1997. Ancient Indian Warfare with Special Reference to the Vedic Period. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Śiva Purāṇa, 2008. Translated by a board of scholars. Part II. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Śivānanda Lahari. https://www.shankaracharya.org/shivananda_lahari.php
Tagare, C.V. (trans.) 1991. The Skanda Purāṇa. Translated and Annotated. Part 1-20. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Thakur, Upendra 1986. Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture. Delhi: Abhinava Publications.
Tripathi, G. Ch. 1984. “The Legend of the Destruction of Tripura.” In Amritadhara. Delhi: 1984.
Vandenberg, Tricky. 2009. Ayutthaya-history.com/Historical_sites_Thewasathan.html
Vickery, Michael. 1995. “Piltdown 3. Further discussion of the Ram Khamhaeng inscription.” JSS, 83.
Wales, Quaritch H.G. 1931. Siamese State Ceremonies. Their History and Function. London: Routledge.
Winai Pongsripian, ed. 2010. กำสรวล สมุทร: สุดยอด กำสรวลศิลป์ [Ocean lament: the ultimate of the lament genre] (in Thai). Bangkok: Thailand Research Fund.
Zimmer, Henri. 1990. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Baker, Chris and Pasuk. 2017. A History of Ayutthaya. Cambridge University Press
Baker, Chris et al. 2005. Van Vliet’s Siam. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Barth, Auguste. 1885. Inscriptions Sanskrit du Cambodge. Paris: Imprimerie nationale.
Bradley, Cornelius Breach. 1909. “The Oldest Known Writing in Siamese. The Inscription of Phra Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhothai, 1293 A.D”. JSS, 6(1): 1-64.
Brahma Purāṇa. 2004. Translated and annotated by a board of scholars. Part IV. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Brooks, Douglas Renfrew. 1992. The Secret of Three Cities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Chakrabarti, Shruti. 2019. “A magic number: Into the lost hill of Unnakoti, Tripura.” The Indian Express (Life Style News). New Delhi, Wednesday, 10 July 2019.
Chamberlain, James R. (ed.). 1991. The Ram Khamhaeng Controversy, Collected Papers. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Chaube M.C. 2003. Tripuri, History and Culture. Delhi: Mittal Publications.
Cœdès, George. 1923. “Nouvelles notes critiques sur l’inscription de Rama Khamhaeng.” JSS, 17(3).
_____. 1924. Recueil des inscriptions du Siam. Première partie: Inscriptions de Sukhodaya. Bangkok: Bangkok Times Press.
_____. 1937. Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vol. I. Hanoi: Imprimerie d’Extrême-Orient
_____. 1944. “Une nouvelle inscription of Ayutthaya.” JSS, 35.
_____. 1952. Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vol. 4. Paris: E. de Boccard.
_____. 1954. Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vol. 6. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient.
_____. 1964. Inscriptions du Cambodge. Vol. 7. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient.
_____. 1975. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Canberra: Australian National University Press.
Cowell, E.B. and F.W. Thomas. 1897. The Harsa-Carita of Bana. London: Royal Asiatic Society.
Cushman, Richard D. 2000. The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya. A Synoptic Translation. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
Dagens, Bruno. 1994. Mayamatam. Treatise of Housing, Architecture and Iconography. Vols. I-II: New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.
Deshpande, N.A. (tr.). 1991. The Padma-Purāṇa, part VIII. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Dvivedi, Dasaratha and Rajanarayana Upadhyaya (ed.). 1999. Tripuravadha by Śrī Vatsarāja. Sarasvatī-bhavana-granthamālā (vol. 137). Varanasi: Sampurnanand Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya.
Eggling, Julius. trans. 1894. The Shatapatha Brahmana. According to the Text of the Madhyandina School. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Erdosy, George. 2012. The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity: Walter de Gruyter.
Filliozat, Jean. 1965 “Kailasaparmpara.” In Felicitation Volumes of South-East Asian Studies Presented to H.H. Prince Dhani Nivat. Vol. II. Bangkok; reprinted in Laghu=Prabandhah, Choix d’articles d’Indologie par Jean Filliozat. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974.
Finot, Louis, et al. 2000. A Guide to the Temple of Banteay Srei at Angkor. Bangkok: White Lotus. Translation of Memoires archéologques I: Le temple d’Isvarapura. Paris: EFEO, 1926.
Friedman, Bruno. 1977. “Thai phallic amulets.” JSS, 65(2).
Gerd J.R. Mevissen. 2016. “Three Royal Temple Foundations in South India: Tripurantaka Imagery as a Statement of Political Power.” In Temple Architecture and Imagery of South and Southeast Asia. Prasādanidhi: Papers presented to Professor M.A. Dhaky. Delhi: Aryan Books International.
Gosling, Betty. 1991. Sukhothai. Its History, Culture and Art. Oxford University Press.
Griswold, A.B. and Prasert ṇa Nagara. 1977a. “Epigraphic and Historical Studies no 17. The Maṅrāyviniccaya (The Judgment of King Măṅ Rai ).” JSS, 65(1).
_____. 1977b. “The inscription of Vat Jyaṅ Hmān (Wat Chiang Man). Epigraphic and Historical Studies no 18.” JSS, 65(2).
Groslier, Bernard-Philippe. 1981. “Les Syam Kuk des bas-reliefs d’Angkor Vat”. In Orients: Pour George Condominas. Paris: Sudestasie.
Hazra, Rajendra Chandra. 1987. Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Karmarkar, R.D. (ed. and trans.). 2001. Meghadūta of Kalidāsa. Delhi: Chaukhambha Sanskrit Pratisthan.
Kirsch, Thomas. 1977. “Complexity in Thai Religious Systems: An Interpretation.” Journal of Asian Studies, 36(2).
Kramrisch, Stella. 2007. The Presence of Siva. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Kuanpoonpol, Priyawat.1990. “Court Brahmans of Thailand and the Celebration of the Brahman New Year.” Indo-Iranian Journal, 33(1).
Lidova, Natalia. 1994. Drama and Ritual of Early Hinduism. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Leena, Chandra K. 2017. “A Brief Study of Dasarupaka of Viswanatha.” Journal of Hindi and Sanskrit Research, 15.
Macdonell and Keith. 1912. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. London: John Murray.
Majumdar, Kamalika. 2013. “Real Import of the Word ‘Pura’ and the Arya-Dasa Systems in the Rig Veda.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 74: 48-53.
Martin, Judith G. The Function of Mythic Figures in the Tirumantiram. Thesis submitted to Mac Master University. https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/14086/1/fulltext.pdf
Sundarman, T.P. Meenakshi. 1966. “Tirupavai, Tiruvempavai in South East Asia”. In Proceedings of the of First International Conference of Tamil Studies, I: 13-20.
Monier-Williams, Monier.1899. Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Mukhopadhyaya, Bh. S. 1951. “The Tripura Episode in Sanskrit Literature.” Journal of Ganganath Jha Research Institute, 8: 37-95
Nagaswamy, R. ‘Tripurāntaka, Vinadhara dakshina murti or kirata murti?’ http://tamilartacademy.com/journals/volume2/articles/tripurantaka. html.
O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. 1980. The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Oldenburg, Hermann. 1897. Vedic Hymns. Part II. Hymns to Agni (mandala1-5). Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass (Sacred Books of the East, vol. 46).
Pal, Pratapaditya. 1987. “The Gift of Books According to the Devīpurāṇa.” In M.S. Nagaraj Rao (ed.), Kusumāñjali. New Interpretation of Indian Art and Culture. Sh C. Sivaramamurti Commemoration Volume. Delhi: Agama Kala Prakashan.
Pankaja, Liesbeth Benniink. 2016. Sutra Journal http://www.sutrajournal.com/the-dance-of-shiva-by-liesbeth-pankaja.
Pavie, Auguste. 1898. Mission Pavie. Indochine, 1879-1895. Etudes Diverses II. Recherches sur l’histoire du Cambodge, du Laos et du Siam. Paris: Ernest Leroux.
Penzer, N.M. 1924-28. The Ocean of Story, Being C.H. Tawney’s Translation of Somadeva’s Kathasarit Sagara (or Ocean of Stream of Stories). Vols. 1-10. London. Reprint Motilal Banarasidass, 1968.
Pills, Karen. 2013. Interpreting Devotion: The Poetry and Legacy of a Female Bhakti Saint of India. Delhi: Routledge India.
Poolthupya, Srisurang. 1979. Thai Intellectual and Literary World. Bangkok: Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University.
Pou, Saveros. 1992. An Old Khmer-French-English Dictionary. Paris: Cedoreck.
Rao, T.A, Gopinath. 1997. Elements of Hindu iconography. Vol. 2, part I-II. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Sahai, Sachchidanand. 2009. Preah Vihear. An Introduction to the World Heritage Monument. Phnom Penh: UNESCO
Sahityadarpana by Visvanatha. 2007. Varanasi: Vidya Bhawan.
Sampaongern, Pongdhan (ed.). 2015. Si Thep. The Centre of Early Civilization in Pa Sak Valley. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department.
Saraswathi, Ramanand (trans.). Tripura Rahasya or Mystery beyond the Trinity. Tiruvannamali: Ramanasramam. https://archive.org/details/Tripura Rahasya.
Sastri, Gaurinath. 1960. A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Calcutta: Oxford University Press.
Schmitt, S. 1885. Deux anciennes inscriptions Siamoises. Bangkok.
Shankar, Bindu S. 2004. Dance Imagery in South Indian Temples: Study of the 108 karana sculptures. Dissertation, Ohio State University.
Shendge, Malati J. 2003. The Civilized Demons: the Harappans in Rigveda. Delhi: Abhinava Publications.
Schwindler, Gary J. 1987. “Speculations on the theme of Siva as Tripurantaka as it appears during the reign of Rajaraja I in the Tanjore area ca. A.D. 1000.” Ars Orientalis, 17: 163-78.
Singh, Sarva Daman. 1997. Ancient Indian Warfare with Special Reference to the Vedic Period. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Śiva Purāṇa, 2008. Translated by a board of scholars. Part II. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Śivānanda Lahari. https://www.shankaracharya.org/shivananda_lahari.php
Tagare, C.V. (trans.) 1991. The Skanda Purāṇa. Translated and Annotated. Part 1-20. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
Thakur, Upendra 1986. Some Aspects of Asian History and Culture. Delhi: Abhinava Publications.
Tripathi, G. Ch. 1984. “The Legend of the Destruction of Tripura.” In Amritadhara. Delhi: 1984.
Vandenberg, Tricky. 2009. Ayutthaya-history.com/Historical_sites_Thewasathan.html
Vickery, Michael. 1995. “Piltdown 3. Further discussion of the Ram Khamhaeng inscription.” JSS, 83.
Wales, Quaritch H.G. 1931. Siamese State Ceremonies. Their History and Function. London: Routledge.
Winai Pongsripian, ed. 2010. กำสรวล สมุทร: สุดยอด กำสรวลศิลป์ [Ocean lament: the ultimate of the lament genre] (in Thai). Bangkok: Thailand Research Fund.
Zimmer, Henri. 1990. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
