Viṣṇuvarman in the Golden Peninsula
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May 14, 2021
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Abstract
This article develops from recent numismatic studies and discoveries made at the site of Khuan Luk Pat, in Khlong Thom district, Krabi province of Peninsular Thailand. Some of the gold coins found there are inscribed on the reverse with the name Viṣuvama in Prakrit, possibly equivalent to Viṣṇuvarman in Sanskrit, and may refer to a local Indianized ruler of the first centuries CE. This would be the earliest royal title suffixed by °varman that we know for a king in Thailand. This Vaiṣṇava name, moreover, has, to date, not been found in the rest of mainland Southeast Asia, although there are a few epigraphic occurrences ascribed to Viṣṇuvarman known in South Asia from the late 1st century BCE to the 6th century CE. In addition, and most remarkably, an inscribed seal from the 5th–6th century discovered long ago in Peninsular Malaysia contains the same name in Sanskrit, thus giving rise to speculation regarding the identity and relationship between these two Viṣṇuvarmans uncovered in the Golden Peninsula.
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Revire, N. (2021). Viṣṇuvarman in the Golden Peninsula. The Journal of the Siam Society, 109(1), 101–118. Retrieved from https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/pub_jss/article/view/248869
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References
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Aspell, William. 2013. Southeast Asia in the Suishu: A Translation of Memoir 47 with Notes and Commentary. Asia Research Institute Working Paper No. 208, National University of Singapore.
Balogh, Dániel, 2019. Inscriptions of the Aulikaras and Their Associates. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Bellina, Bérénice et al. 2014. “The Early Development of Coastal Polities in the Upper Thai-Malay Peninsula”. In Before Siam: Essays in Art and Archaeology, eds. Nicolas Revire & Stephen A. Murphy, pp. 69–89. Bangkok: River Books/The Siam Society.
Boechari, M. 1988. “Beberapa kritik atas naskah-naskah ‘Pangeran Wangsakerta’”. In Laporan Diskusi Panel Naskah Sumber Sejarah Kerajaan Tarumanagara, pp. 22–37. Jakarta: Universitas Tarumanagara.
Borell, Brigitte. 2014. “The Power of Images: Coin Portraits of Roman Emperors on Jewellery Pendants in Early Southeast Asia”. Zeitschrift fur Archaologie Außereuropaischer Kulturen, Vol. 6: 7–43.
–––––. 2017. “Gold Coins from Khlong Thom”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 105: 151–177.
–––––. 2019a. “Gold Coins from Khlong Thom: An Update”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 107, Pt 2: 155–158.
–––––. 2019b. “A Roman Gold Coin Found in Peninsular Thailand”. In Suvarnabhumi: The Golden Land, eds. Bunchar Pongpanich & Somchet Thinapong, pp. 59–68. Bangkok: GISTDA.
–––––. 2020. “More About Gold Coins from Khlong Thom, with a Revised Reading of the Inscription”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 108, Pt. 1: 155–160.
Borell, Brigitte & Falk, Harry. 2017. “Stone Seals and Intaglios from Khao Sam Kaeo”. In Khao Sam Kaeo: An Early Port-City between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, ed. Bérénice Bellina, pp. 587–619. Paris: École française d’Extrême-Orient.
Braddell, Roland. 1939. “An Introduction to the Study of Ancient Times in the Malay Peninsula and the Straits of Malacca”. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 17, Pt. 1: 146–212.
Chhabra, Bahadur Chand. 1935. “Expansion of Indo-Aryan Culture during Pallava Rule, as Evidenced by Inscriptions”. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 1: 1–64.
Damsteegt, Theo. 1978. Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit: Its Rise, Spread, Characteristics and Relationship to Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. Leiden: Brill.
Das, Kumar Totan. 2014. “The Development of ‘Box-Headed Script’ and Its Origin (4th Century A.D–7th Century A.D.)”. Indian Streams Research Journal, Vol. 4, Issue 7: 1–9.
Ekadjati, Edi S. 2005. Polemik Naskah Pangeran Wangsakerta. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya.
Emeneau, Murray Barnson. 1978. “Towards an Onomastics of South Asia”. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 98, No. 2: 113–130.
Evans, Ivor H.N. 1932. “Excavations at Tanjong Rawa, Kuala Selinsing, Perak”. Journal of the F.M.S. Museums, Vol. 15, No. 2: 79–133.
Falk, Harry. 1998. “Notes on Some Apraca Dedicatory Texts”. Berliner Indologische Studien, Vols. 11–12: 85–108.
Fleet, John Faithfull. 1876. “Sanskṛit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions. No. XII”. The Indian Antiquary, Vol. 5: 50–53.
Francis, Emmanuel. 2017. Le discours royal dans l’Inde du Sud ancienne. Inscriptions et monuments pallava (IVème – IXème siècles). Tome II: mythes dynastiques et panégyriques. Louvain-La-Neuve: Université catholique de Louvain.
Gai, G.S. 1996. Inscriptions of the Early Kadambas. New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research & Pratibha Prakashan.
Gallop, Annabel Teh. 2016. “The Early Use of Seals in the Malay World”. Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient, Vol. 102: 125–164.
Ghosh, Amalananda (ed.). 1957. Indian Archaeology 1956–57, A Review. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
Griffiths, Arlo. 2014. “Early Indic Inscriptions of Southeast Asia”. In Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia, ed. John Guy, pp. 53–57. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
–––––. 2015. “Three More Sanskrit Inscriptions of Arakan: New Perspectives on Its Name, Dynastic History, and Buddhist Culture in the First Millennium”. Journal of Burma Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2: 281–340.
Gupte, Y.R. 1915–16. “Two Talesvara Copperplates”. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 13: 109–121.
Hall, Kenneth R. 1985. Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i.
Hoshino, Tatsuo. 1996. “The Kingdom of Red Earth (Chitu Guo) in Cambodia and Vietnam from the Sixth to the Eighth Centuries”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 84, Pt 2: 55–74.
Iguchi, Masatoshi. 2015. Java Essay: The History and Culture of a Southern Country. Kibworth Beauchamp: Matador.
Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Michel. 2002. The Malay Peninsula. Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road (100 BC – 1300 AD). Leiden: Brill.
Kao, William T. 1956. “A Primary Chinese Record Relating to Ho-Lo-Tan and Miscellaneous Notes on Srivijaya and Fo-Che”. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 29, No. 1: 163–178.
Kongkaew Veeraprajak. 1986. “Inscriptions from South Thailand”. SPAFA Digest, Vol. 7, No. 1: 7–21.
Lavy, Paul. 2020. “Early Vaiṣṇava Sculpture in Southeast Asia and the Question of Pallava Influence”. In Across the South of Asia: A Volume in Honor of Professor Robert L. Brown, eds. Robert DeCaroli & Paul A. Lavy, pp. 213–249. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld.
Lévi, Sylvain. 1925. “Ptolémée, le Niddesa et la Bṛhatkathâ”. Études asiatiques, Tome second. Paris: G. Van Oest, pp. 1–55.
Lorrillard, Michel. 2014. “Pre-Angkorian Communities in the Middle Mekong Valley (Laos and Adjacent Areas)”. In Before Siam: Essays in Art and Archaeology, eds Nicolas Revire & Stephen A. Murphy, pp. 186–215. Bangkok: River Books/The Siam Society.
Lubis, Nina H. 2002. “Kontroversi Tentang Naskah Wangsakerta”. Humaniora, Vol. 14, No. 1: 20–26.
Manguin, Pierre-Yves. 2019. “The Transmission of Vaiṣṇavism Across the Bay of Bengal: Trade Networks and State Formation in Early Historic Southeast Asia”. In Early Global Interconnectivity Across the Indian Ocean World, Volume II: Exchange of Ideas, Religions, and Technologies, ed. Angela Schottenhammer, pp. 51–68. London: Palgrave MacMillan.
Mayuree Veraprasert. 1992. “Khlong Thom: An Ancient Bead-manufacturing Location and an Ancient Entrepôt”. In Early Metallurgy, Trade and Urban Centres in Thailand and Southeast Asia, eds. Ian Glover, Pornchai Suchitta & John Villiers, pp. 149–161. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Mitchiner, Michael. 1998. The History and Coinage of South East Asia until the Fifteenth Century. London: Hawkins.
Moraes, George M. 1931. The Kadamba Kula: A History of Ancient and Mediaeval Karnataka. Bombay: Furtado & Sons.
Mukherjee, B.N. 1997. “Farewell to Bhagamoya”. South Asian Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1: 141–144.
Pelliot, Paul. 1904. “Deux itinéraires de Chine en Inde à la fin du VIIIe siècle”. Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient, Vol. 4: 131–413.
Penzer, Norman M. (ed.). 1984. The Ocean of Story: Being C.H. Tawney’s Translation of Somadeva’s Kathāsaritsāgara (or Ocean of Streams of Story). Now Edited with Introduction, Fresh Explanatory Notes and Terminal Essay, in Ten Volumes. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass [Reprint; Second Revised and Enlarged Edition 1924–28].
Salomon, Richard. 1995. “A Kharoṣṭhī Reliquary Inscription of the Time of the Apraca Prince Viṣṇuvarma”. South Asian Studies, Vol. 11: 27–32.
–––––. 1996. “An Inscribed Silver Buddhist Reliquary of the Time of King Kharaosta and Prince Indravarman”. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.116, No. 3: 418–452.
–––––. 1998. Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
–––––. 2001. “‘Gāndhārī Hybrid Sanskrit’: New Sources for the Study of the Sanskritization of Buddhist Literature”. Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. 44, No. 3: 241–252.
Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. 1936. “A Note on an Inscribed Seal from Perak”. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 14, No. 3: 282–283.
Sircar, Dinesh C. 1963–64. “More Inscriptions from Nagarjunikonda”. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 35: 1–36.
Skilling, Peter. 2015. “The Circulation of Artefacts Engraved with ‘Apramāda’ and Other Mottos in Southeast Asia and India: A Preliminary Report”. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University, Vol. 18: 63–78.
Strauch, Ingo (ed.). 2012. Foreign Sailors on Socotra: The Inscriptions and Drawings from the Cave Hoq. Bremen: Hempen Verlag.
Thaplyal, K.K. 1972. Studies in Ancient Indian Seals: A Study of North Indian Seals and Sealings from Circa Third Century B.C. to Mid-Seventh Century A.D. Lucknow: Akhila Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad.
Vogel, Jean Philippe. 1929–30. “Prakrit Inscriptions from a Buddhist Site at Nagarjunikonda”. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 20: 1–37.
Wade, Geoff. 2014. “Beyond the Southern Borders: Southeast Asia in Chinese Texts to the Ninth Century”. In Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia, ed. John Guy, pp. 25–31. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Wheatley, Paul. 1961. The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.
Wicks, Robert S. 1992. “Ancient Coinage from Thailand and Burma—Its Geographical Distribution and Typological Development”. In Indian Numismatics, History, Art, and Culture. Essays in Honour of Dr. P. L. Gupta, eds. David W. MacDowall, Savita Sharma & Sanjay Garg, Vol. II, pp. 253–283. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
Winternitz, Maurice [trans. by Subhadra Jha]. 1985. History of Indian Literature (Volume III, Part 1 & 2). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass [Reprint; First English Edition 1963–67].
Wolters, Oliver W. 1967. Early Indonesian Commerce: A Study of the Origins of Śrīvijaya. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Aspell, William. 2013. Southeast Asia in the Suishu: A Translation of Memoir 47 with Notes and Commentary. Asia Research Institute Working Paper No. 208, National University of Singapore.
Balogh, Dániel, 2019. Inscriptions of the Aulikaras and Their Associates. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Bellina, Bérénice et al. 2014. “The Early Development of Coastal Polities in the Upper Thai-Malay Peninsula”. In Before Siam: Essays in Art and Archaeology, eds. Nicolas Revire & Stephen A. Murphy, pp. 69–89. Bangkok: River Books/The Siam Society.
Boechari, M. 1988. “Beberapa kritik atas naskah-naskah ‘Pangeran Wangsakerta’”. In Laporan Diskusi Panel Naskah Sumber Sejarah Kerajaan Tarumanagara, pp. 22–37. Jakarta: Universitas Tarumanagara.
Borell, Brigitte. 2014. “The Power of Images: Coin Portraits of Roman Emperors on Jewellery Pendants in Early Southeast Asia”. Zeitschrift fur Archaologie Außereuropaischer Kulturen, Vol. 6: 7–43.
–––––. 2017. “Gold Coins from Khlong Thom”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 105: 151–177.
–––––. 2019a. “Gold Coins from Khlong Thom: An Update”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 107, Pt 2: 155–158.
–––––. 2019b. “A Roman Gold Coin Found in Peninsular Thailand”. In Suvarnabhumi: The Golden Land, eds. Bunchar Pongpanich & Somchet Thinapong, pp. 59–68. Bangkok: GISTDA.
–––––. 2020. “More About Gold Coins from Khlong Thom, with a Revised Reading of the Inscription”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 108, Pt. 1: 155–160.
Borell, Brigitte & Falk, Harry. 2017. “Stone Seals and Intaglios from Khao Sam Kaeo”. In Khao Sam Kaeo: An Early Port-City between the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea, ed. Bérénice Bellina, pp. 587–619. Paris: École française d’Extrême-Orient.
Braddell, Roland. 1939. “An Introduction to the Study of Ancient Times in the Malay Peninsula and the Straits of Malacca”. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 17, Pt. 1: 146–212.
Chhabra, Bahadur Chand. 1935. “Expansion of Indo-Aryan Culture during Pallava Rule, as Evidenced by Inscriptions”. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 1: 1–64.
Damsteegt, Theo. 1978. Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit: Its Rise, Spread, Characteristics and Relationship to Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. Leiden: Brill.
Das, Kumar Totan. 2014. “The Development of ‘Box-Headed Script’ and Its Origin (4th Century A.D–7th Century A.D.)”. Indian Streams Research Journal, Vol. 4, Issue 7: 1–9.
Ekadjati, Edi S. 2005. Polemik Naskah Pangeran Wangsakerta. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya.
Emeneau, Murray Barnson. 1978. “Towards an Onomastics of South Asia”. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 98, No. 2: 113–130.
Evans, Ivor H.N. 1932. “Excavations at Tanjong Rawa, Kuala Selinsing, Perak”. Journal of the F.M.S. Museums, Vol. 15, No. 2: 79–133.
Falk, Harry. 1998. “Notes on Some Apraca Dedicatory Texts”. Berliner Indologische Studien, Vols. 11–12: 85–108.
Fleet, John Faithfull. 1876. “Sanskṛit and Old-Canarese Inscriptions. No. XII”. The Indian Antiquary, Vol. 5: 50–53.
Francis, Emmanuel. 2017. Le discours royal dans l’Inde du Sud ancienne. Inscriptions et monuments pallava (IVème – IXème siècles). Tome II: mythes dynastiques et panégyriques. Louvain-La-Neuve: Université catholique de Louvain.
Gai, G.S. 1996. Inscriptions of the Early Kadambas. New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research & Pratibha Prakashan.
Gallop, Annabel Teh. 2016. “The Early Use of Seals in the Malay World”. Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient, Vol. 102: 125–164.
Ghosh, Amalananda (ed.). 1957. Indian Archaeology 1956–57, A Review. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India.
Griffiths, Arlo. 2014. “Early Indic Inscriptions of Southeast Asia”. In Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia, ed. John Guy, pp. 53–57. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
–––––. 2015. “Three More Sanskrit Inscriptions of Arakan: New Perspectives on Its Name, Dynastic History, and Buddhist Culture in the First Millennium”. Journal of Burma Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2: 281–340.
Gupte, Y.R. 1915–16. “Two Talesvara Copperplates”. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 13: 109–121.
Hall, Kenneth R. 1985. Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i.
Hoshino, Tatsuo. 1996. “The Kingdom of Red Earth (Chitu Guo) in Cambodia and Vietnam from the Sixth to the Eighth Centuries”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 84, Pt 2: 55–74.
Iguchi, Masatoshi. 2015. Java Essay: The History and Culture of a Southern Country. Kibworth Beauchamp: Matador.
Jacq-Hergoualc’h, Michel. 2002. The Malay Peninsula. Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road (100 BC – 1300 AD). Leiden: Brill.
Kao, William T. 1956. “A Primary Chinese Record Relating to Ho-Lo-Tan and Miscellaneous Notes on Srivijaya and Fo-Che”. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 29, No. 1: 163–178.
Kongkaew Veeraprajak. 1986. “Inscriptions from South Thailand”. SPAFA Digest, Vol. 7, No. 1: 7–21.
Lavy, Paul. 2020. “Early Vaiṣṇava Sculpture in Southeast Asia and the Question of Pallava Influence”. In Across the South of Asia: A Volume in Honor of Professor Robert L. Brown, eds. Robert DeCaroli & Paul A. Lavy, pp. 213–249. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld.
Lévi, Sylvain. 1925. “Ptolémée, le Niddesa et la Bṛhatkathâ”. Études asiatiques, Tome second. Paris: G. Van Oest, pp. 1–55.
Lorrillard, Michel. 2014. “Pre-Angkorian Communities in the Middle Mekong Valley (Laos and Adjacent Areas)”. In Before Siam: Essays in Art and Archaeology, eds Nicolas Revire & Stephen A. Murphy, pp. 186–215. Bangkok: River Books/The Siam Society.
Lubis, Nina H. 2002. “Kontroversi Tentang Naskah Wangsakerta”. Humaniora, Vol. 14, No. 1: 20–26.
Manguin, Pierre-Yves. 2019. “The Transmission of Vaiṣṇavism Across the Bay of Bengal: Trade Networks and State Formation in Early Historic Southeast Asia”. In Early Global Interconnectivity Across the Indian Ocean World, Volume II: Exchange of Ideas, Religions, and Technologies, ed. Angela Schottenhammer, pp. 51–68. London: Palgrave MacMillan.
Mayuree Veraprasert. 1992. “Khlong Thom: An Ancient Bead-manufacturing Location and an Ancient Entrepôt”. In Early Metallurgy, Trade and Urban Centres in Thailand and Southeast Asia, eds. Ian Glover, Pornchai Suchitta & John Villiers, pp. 149–161. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Mitchiner, Michael. 1998. The History and Coinage of South East Asia until the Fifteenth Century. London: Hawkins.
Moraes, George M. 1931. The Kadamba Kula: A History of Ancient and Mediaeval Karnataka. Bombay: Furtado & Sons.
Mukherjee, B.N. 1997. “Farewell to Bhagamoya”. South Asian Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1: 141–144.
Pelliot, Paul. 1904. “Deux itinéraires de Chine en Inde à la fin du VIIIe siècle”. Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient, Vol. 4: 131–413.
Penzer, Norman M. (ed.). 1984. The Ocean of Story: Being C.H. Tawney’s Translation of Somadeva’s Kathāsaritsāgara (or Ocean of Streams of Story). Now Edited with Introduction, Fresh Explanatory Notes and Terminal Essay, in Ten Volumes. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass [Reprint; Second Revised and Enlarged Edition 1924–28].
Salomon, Richard. 1995. “A Kharoṣṭhī Reliquary Inscription of the Time of the Apraca Prince Viṣṇuvarma”. South Asian Studies, Vol. 11: 27–32.
–––––. 1996. “An Inscribed Silver Buddhist Reliquary of the Time of King Kharaosta and Prince Indravarman”. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol.116, No. 3: 418–452.
–––––. 1998. Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
–––––. 2001. “‘Gāndhārī Hybrid Sanskrit’: New Sources for the Study of the Sanskritization of Buddhist Literature”. Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. 44, No. 3: 241–252.
Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. 1936. “A Note on an Inscribed Seal from Perak”. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 14, No. 3: 282–283.
Sircar, Dinesh C. 1963–64. “More Inscriptions from Nagarjunikonda”. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 35: 1–36.
Skilling, Peter. 2015. “The Circulation of Artefacts Engraved with ‘Apramāda’ and Other Mottos in Southeast Asia and India: A Preliminary Report”. Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University, Vol. 18: 63–78.
Strauch, Ingo (ed.). 2012. Foreign Sailors on Socotra: The Inscriptions and Drawings from the Cave Hoq. Bremen: Hempen Verlag.
Thaplyal, K.K. 1972. Studies in Ancient Indian Seals: A Study of North Indian Seals and Sealings from Circa Third Century B.C. to Mid-Seventh Century A.D. Lucknow: Akhila Bharatiya Sanskrit Parishad.
Vogel, Jean Philippe. 1929–30. “Prakrit Inscriptions from a Buddhist Site at Nagarjunikonda”. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 20: 1–37.
Wade, Geoff. 2014. “Beyond the Southern Borders: Southeast Asia in Chinese Texts to the Ninth Century”. In Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia, ed. John Guy, pp. 25–31. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Wheatley, Paul. 1961. The Golden Khersonese: Studies in the Historical Geography of the Malay Peninsula before A.D. 1500. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press.
Wicks, Robert S. 1992. “Ancient Coinage from Thailand and Burma—Its Geographical Distribution and Typological Development”. In Indian Numismatics, History, Art, and Culture. Essays in Honour of Dr. P. L. Gupta, eds. David W. MacDowall, Savita Sharma & Sanjay Garg, Vol. II, pp. 253–283. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan.
Winternitz, Maurice [trans. by Subhadra Jha]. 1985. History of Indian Literature (Volume III, Part 1 & 2). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass [Reprint; First English Edition 1963–67].
Wolters, Oliver W. 1967. Early Indonesian Commerce: A Study of the Origins of Śrīvijaya. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.