The Hindu Sage Kapila, the Liberation of Bodh Gaya and Burma on the Eve of the Modern Era
Abstract
The discovery in Upper Burma of a stone sculpture representing the Hindu sage Kapila highlights the key role that Brahmanical rituals played in the court life of Theravāda societies. Commissioned in Varanasi, this image of Kapila was transported in 1812 to Amarapura, the Burmese capital, where it was the focus of state ceremonies. Less than a year later the imported sculpture stepped onto the geopolitical stage when it became the centerpiece of an attack on India to free Bodh Gaya from British control before the invasion was aborted. How the palace, the sangha and court Brahmans balanced both Hindu and Buddhist perceptions of Kapila opens a window on the labyrinthine ties between Southeast Asia and Indian civilization.
References
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______. 2002.“Centralizing Historical Tradition in Precolonial Burma: The Abhiraja/Dhajaraja Myth in Early Konbaung Historical Texts.” South East Asia Research, 10, 2: 185-215.
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_____. 1979. “An Inscription of 1563 A.D Recording a Treaty Between Laos and Ayodhya in 1560.” Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 67: 54 – 69.
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_____. 2005. “The Emergence of Rakhine Historiography: A Challenge for Myanmar Historical Research.” In Myanmar Historical Commission Conference Proceedings,Part 2. Yangon: Universities Press. pp. 38-59.
_____. 2005/06. “Specialists for Ritual, Magic and Devotion: The Court Brahmins (Punna) of the Konbaung Kings (1752-18885).” Journal of Burma Studies, 10: 159-202.
Li, Rongxi. 2002. Lives of the Great Monks and Nuns. Berkeley: Numata Center.
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Luce, G.H. and Pe Maung Tin. 1960 [1923]. Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma (Hmannan Mahayasawindawgyi). Rangoon: Rangoon University Press.
Mahāvaṃsa. 1986 [1912]. The Māhavaṃsa or Great Chronicle of Ceylon. Wilhelm Geiger (trans). Colombo: Ceylon Government Information Department,
Malalasekera, G.P. 1935. The Mahāvaṃsa Ṭīkā, 2 vols. London: Oxford University Press.
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Okudaira, Ryuji. 2018, Kingship and Law in the Early Konbaung Period of Myanmar (1752-1819). Tokyo: Mekong Publishing Co.
Pranke, Patrick. 2004. “The ‘Treatise on the Lineage of Elders’ (Vamsadipani): Monastic Reform and the Writing of Buddhist History in Eighteenth-century Burma. PhD dissertation. University of Michigan.
_____. 2008a “‘Bodawpaya’s Madness’ Monastic Accounts of the King Bodawpaya’s Conflict with the Burmese Saṅgha.” Unpublished conference paper. Association for Asian Studies.
_____. 2008b. “‘Bodawpaya’s Madness’ Monastic Accounts of the King Bodawpaya’s Conflict with the Burmese Saṅgha, Part One.”, Journal of Burma Studies. 12: 1-28.
Rajaratnakaraya 2009. Rajaratnakaraya: The Gem Mine of Kings. Kusuma Karunaratne (trans). Colombo: Central Cultural Fund Publication
Rajavilaya 2014. The Rajavaliya: A Comprehensive Account of the Rulers of Sri Lanka. A.V. Suraweera (trans). Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications.
Rockhill, Woodville W. 1984. The Life of the Buddha: Tibetan Works in the Brah-hgyur and Bstan-Hgyur. London: Trübner and Co.
Royal Orders of Burma, 1983-1990. 10 vols. Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies.
Sangermano, Father Vicentius. 1966 [1833]. Description of the Burmese Empire. London: Susil Gupta.
Singer, Noel F. 1994. “Royal Ancestral Images of Myanmar.” Arts of Asia, Vol. 24, No. 3: 110-17.
Skilling, Peter. 2007. “King, Sangha and Brahmans: Ideology, ritual and power in pre-modern Siam.” In Ian Harris (ed). Buddhism, Power and Political Order, pp. 182-215. London: Routledge.
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_____. 2000. “The Enigma of the Mingun Pagoda: Is the Pagoda really Unfinished.” In Myanmar Two Millennia. Yangon: Universities Historical Research Centre. 3: 97-109.
_____. 2001. “Burma on the Eve of the Modern Era.”, Orientations, Vol. 32, No. 4: 50-56.
_____. 2003. “The Questions and Answers of Maungdaung Sayadaw and the Confluence of the Ananda Temple, Pagan, and the Mingun Pagoda.” Unpublished conference paper. Yangon: Text and Contexts in Southeast Asia.
_____. 2015. Sacred Sites of Burma. Bangkok: River Books.
Strong, John. 2009. “The Buddha as Peacemaker: The Rohini River Water Dispute and the War between the Sakyas and the Kosalas.” Unpublished conference paper. Hamburg: Peace in the Buddhist Traditions of India and Tibet.
_____. 1992. The Legend and Cult of Upagupta: Sanskrit Buddhism in North Indian and Southeast Asia. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Symes, Michael. 1969 [1800]. An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India in the Year 1795. London: Bulmer and Co.
Sumaṅgala-vilāsinī. 1886. Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Digha Nikya. Part I. London: Pali Text Society.
Swearer, Donald K. and Sommai Premchit. 1998. The Legend of Queen Cama. New York: State University of New York Press.
Than Tun. 1961. “The Influence of Occultism in Burmese History with Special Reference to Bodawpaya’s Reign.” Bulletin of the Burma Historical Commission. 1, 2: 117-145.
Thant Myint U. 2001. The Making of Modern Burma. Cambridge: University Press.
Thapar, Romila. 2013. The Past Before Us: Historical Traditions of Early North India. New Delhi: Permanent Black Books.
Tun Aung Chain. 2004a. “Prophecy and Planets: Forms of Legitimation of the Royal City in Myanmar.” In Selected Writings of Tun Aung Chain. Yangon. Myanmar Historical Commission, pp. 124-150.
_____. 2004b. “The Mingun Bell Inscription: The King as Dhammaraja.” In Selected Writings of Tun Aung Chain. Yangon. Myanmar Historical Commission, pp. 186-211.
U Pyinnya. 1996. Other Places of Historical Interest Around the Taung Tha Man Lake. Than Tun (trans). Yangon: Mantale Press.
U Tin. 2001. The Royal Administration of Burma. Euan Bagshawe (trans). Bangkok: Ava Publishing House
Welch, S.C. and Schimmel. A. 1987. The Emperor’s Album Images of Mughal India. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Wickremasinghe, Don Martino de Silva (ed and trans). 1912 [1994]. Epigraphia Zeylanika, Vol 1, 1904-1912. Asian Educational Services.
_____.1928 [1994]. Epigraphia Zeylanika Vol 2. 1912-1927. New Delhi. Asian Educational Services.
_____.1933 [1994]. Epigraphia Zeylanika, Vol 3, 1928-1933. New Delhi. Asian Educational Services.
Wyatt, D.K. 1994. “The ‘subtle revolution’ of King Rama I of Siam.” In Wyatt, Studies in Thai History: Collected Articles. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, pp. 131-174
Ameidawhpyei (Answers to Royal Questions). 1961. Mandalay: Zabumeitswe Bookshop
Archer, Mildred and Falk, Toby. 1989. India Revealed: The Art and Adventures of James and William Fraser 1803-35. London: Cassell.
Baker, Chris and Pasuk Phongpaichit. 2017. A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Beal, Samuel.1981 [1884]. Buddhist Records of the World Western World. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Benedetti, Giacomo. 2014-2015. “The Gaṅgapāla Jātaka and the concept of tapas in the Mahāvastu.” Journal of Indological Studies, 26-27: 37-61.
Bode, Mabel. 1965 [1905]. The Pali Literature of Burma. Rangoon: Burma Research Society.
Buchanan, Francis. 1801. “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas.” Asiatic Researches. 6: 163-308.
Candier, Aurore. 2007. “A Norm of Burmese Kingship? The concept of raza-dhamma through five Konbaaung Periods Texts.” Journal of the Burma Studies, 11.5-48.
Charney, Michael W. 2006. Powerful Learning: Buddhist Literati and the Throne in Burma’s Last Dynasty, 1752-1885. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
______. 2002.“Centralizing Historical Tradition in Precolonial Burma: The Abhiraja/Dhajaraja Myth in Early Konbaung Historical Texts.” South East Asia Research, 10, 2: 185-215.
Chiang Mai Chronicle. 1998. David Wyatt and Aroonrut Wichienkeeo (trans). Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Collins, Steven and Huxley, Andrew. 1966. “The Post-canonical Adventures of Mahasammata.”Journal of Indian Philosophy, 24, 6: 623 – 648.
Cox, Hiram. 1821. Journal of a Residence in the Burmhan Empire. London: John Warren.
Cūlavaṃsa 2003 [1929]. Cūlavaṃsa being the most recent part of the Mahāvaṃsa. 2 Parts. Wilhelm Geiger (trans). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.
Cushman, Richard D. (trans) and Wyatt, David K. (ed). 2000. The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya. Bangkok: The Siam Society
Dhammapada-atthakatha. 1921 Buddhist Legends translated from the original Pali text of the Dhammapada Commentary. Eugene Watson Burlingame. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
Dipavamsa. 1992 [1879]. Dipavamsa. Hermann Oldenberg (trans). New Delhi: Asian Educational Services.
Duroiselle, Charles. 1919 [1972]. Epigraphia Burmanica. 1, 2. Rangoon: Superintendent, Government Printing.
Eck, Diana. 1982. Banaras: City of Light. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Geiger, William. 1986. Culture of Ceylon in Mediaeval Times, Heinze Bechert (ed). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.
Gengnagel, Jörg. 2011. Sacred Spaces, Spatial Texts and the Religious Cartography of Banaras. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
Geoffrey of Monmouth. 1906 [1966]. The History of the Kings of Britain. Lewis Thorpe (trans). New York: Penguin Books.
Green, Alexandra. 2011. “From Gold Leaf to Buddhist Hagiographies: Contact with Regions to the East Seen in Later Burmese Murals.” Journal of Burma Studies, 15.2: 305-358,
Griswold, A.B. and Prasert Na Nagara. 1973. “The Epigraphy of Mahādharmarāja I of Sukhodaya: Epigraphic and Historical Studies No. 11, Part 1”. Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 60, Part 1: 71-127.
_____. 1979. “An Inscription of 1563 A.D Recording a Treaty Between Laos and Ayodhya in 1560.” Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 67: 54 – 69.
Gunawardhana, R.A.L.H. 1978. “The Kinsmen of the Buddha: Myths as Political Charter in the Ancient and early Medieval Kingdoms of Sri Lanka.” In Bardwell L. Smith (ed.). Religion and Legitimation of Power in Sri Lanka. Chambersberg, PA: Anima Press.
Gutschow, Niels. 2006. Benares: the sacred landscape of Varanasi. London: Axel Menges.
Halliday, Robert. 2000. The Mons of Burma and Thailand. Christian Bauer (ed.). Bangkok: White Lotus Press.
Hmannam-Mahayazawindawgyi [The Glass Palace Great Royal Chronicle]. 1967. 3 vols. Rangoon: Pyigyi Mandain Press.
Isaacs, Ralph and Blurton, Richard T. 2000. Visions from the Golden Land: Burma and the Art of Lacquer. London: British Museum Press.
Jacobsen, Knut. 2008. Kapila: Founder of Sāṃkhya and Avatāra of Viṣṇu (with a translation of the Kapilāsurisaṃvāda). New Delhi. Munshiram Manoharlal.
Konbaungzet Mahayazawindawgy (Chronicle of the Konbaung Dyunasty). 2004. Yangon: Yapyay Book House. 3 vols.
Leider, Jacques P. 2004. “Text, Lineage and Tradition in Burma: The Struggle for Norms and Religious Legitimacy under King Bodawphaya (1782-1819).” Journal of Burma Studies. 9: 82-129.
_____. 2005. “The Emergence of Rakhine Historiography: A Challenge for Myanmar Historical Research.” In Myanmar Historical Commission Conference Proceedings,Part 2. Yangon: Universities Press. pp. 38-59.
_____. 2005/06. “Specialists for Ritual, Magic and Devotion: The Court Brahmins (Punna) of the Konbaung Kings (1752-18885).” Journal of Burma Studies, 10: 159-202.
Li, Rongxi. 2002. Lives of the Great Monks and Nuns. Berkeley: Numata Center.
Losty, Jerry. 2008. Indian Paintings and Objects: October 7 - November 12. London: Francesca Galloway.
Luce, G.H. and Pe Maung Tin. 1960 [1923]. Glass Palace Chronicle of the Kings of Burma (Hmannan Mahayasawindawgyi). Rangoon: Rangoon University Press.
Mahāvaṃsa. 1986 [1912]. The Māhavaṃsa or Great Chronicle of Ceylon. Wilhelm Geiger (trans). Colombo: Ceylon Government Information Department,
Malalasekera, G.P. 1935. The Mahāvaṃsa Ṭīkā, 2 vols. London: Oxford University Press.
Mukherji, P.C. and Smith, Vincent. 1901. A Report on a Tour of Exploration of the Antiquities in the Tarai, Nepal: The Region of Kapilavastu. Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing.
Obeyesekere, Gananath. 2018. “The Death of the Buddha: a restorative interpretation.” In The Buddha in Sri Lanka. London: Routledge, pp. 21-55.
Okudaira, Ryuji. 2018, Kingship and Law in the Early Konbaung Period of Myanmar (1752-1819). Tokyo: Mekong Publishing Co.
Pranke, Patrick. 2004. “The ‘Treatise on the Lineage of Elders’ (Vamsadipani): Monastic Reform and the Writing of Buddhist History in Eighteenth-century Burma. PhD dissertation. University of Michigan.
_____. 2008a “‘Bodawpaya’s Madness’ Monastic Accounts of the King Bodawpaya’s Conflict with the Burmese Saṅgha.” Unpublished conference paper. Association for Asian Studies.
_____. 2008b. “‘Bodawpaya’s Madness’ Monastic Accounts of the King Bodawpaya’s Conflict with the Burmese Saṅgha, Part One.”, Journal of Burma Studies. 12: 1-28.
Rajaratnakaraya 2009. Rajaratnakaraya: The Gem Mine of Kings. Kusuma Karunaratne (trans). Colombo: Central Cultural Fund Publication
Rajavilaya 2014. The Rajavaliya: A Comprehensive Account of the Rulers of Sri Lanka. A.V. Suraweera (trans). Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications.
Rockhill, Woodville W. 1984. The Life of the Buddha: Tibetan Works in the Brah-hgyur and Bstan-Hgyur. London: Trübner and Co.
Royal Orders of Burma, 1983-1990. 10 vols. Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies.
Sangermano, Father Vicentius. 1966 [1833]. Description of the Burmese Empire. London: Susil Gupta.
Singer, Noel F. 1994. “Royal Ancestral Images of Myanmar.” Arts of Asia, Vol. 24, No. 3: 110-17.
Skilling, Peter. 2007. “King, Sangha and Brahmans: Ideology, ritual and power in pre-modern Siam.” In Ian Harris (ed). Buddhism, Power and Political Order, pp. 182-215. London: Routledge.
Stadtner, Donald M. 1998. “The Glazed Tiles at Mingun.” In Pierre Pichard and Francois Robinne (eds.), Études birmanes. Paris: École française d’Extrême-Orient. pp. 169-185.
_____. 2000. “The Enigma of the Mingun Pagoda: Is the Pagoda really Unfinished.” In Myanmar Two Millennia. Yangon: Universities Historical Research Centre. 3: 97-109.
_____. 2001. “Burma on the Eve of the Modern Era.”, Orientations, Vol. 32, No. 4: 50-56.
_____. 2003. “The Questions and Answers of Maungdaung Sayadaw and the Confluence of the Ananda Temple, Pagan, and the Mingun Pagoda.” Unpublished conference paper. Yangon: Text and Contexts in Southeast Asia.
_____. 2015. Sacred Sites of Burma. Bangkok: River Books.
Strong, John. 2009. “The Buddha as Peacemaker: The Rohini River Water Dispute and the War between the Sakyas and the Kosalas.” Unpublished conference paper. Hamburg: Peace in the Buddhist Traditions of India and Tibet.
_____. 1992. The Legend and Cult of Upagupta: Sanskrit Buddhism in North Indian and Southeast Asia. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Symes, Michael. 1969 [1800]. An Account of an Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava, sent by the Governor-General of India in the Year 1795. London: Bulmer and Co.
Sumaṅgala-vilāsinī. 1886. Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Digha Nikya. Part I. London: Pali Text Society.
Swearer, Donald K. and Sommai Premchit. 1998. The Legend of Queen Cama. New York: State University of New York Press.
Than Tun. 1961. “The Influence of Occultism in Burmese History with Special Reference to Bodawpaya’s Reign.” Bulletin of the Burma Historical Commission. 1, 2: 117-145.
Thant Myint U. 2001. The Making of Modern Burma. Cambridge: University Press.
Thapar, Romila. 2013. The Past Before Us: Historical Traditions of Early North India. New Delhi: Permanent Black Books.
Tun Aung Chain. 2004a. “Prophecy and Planets: Forms of Legitimation of the Royal City in Myanmar.” In Selected Writings of Tun Aung Chain. Yangon. Myanmar Historical Commission, pp. 124-150.
_____. 2004b. “The Mingun Bell Inscription: The King as Dhammaraja.” In Selected Writings of Tun Aung Chain. Yangon. Myanmar Historical Commission, pp. 186-211.
U Pyinnya. 1996. Other Places of Historical Interest Around the Taung Tha Man Lake. Than Tun (trans). Yangon: Mantale Press.
U Tin. 2001. The Royal Administration of Burma. Euan Bagshawe (trans). Bangkok: Ava Publishing House
Welch, S.C. and Schimmel. A. 1987. The Emperor’s Album Images of Mughal India. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Wickremasinghe, Don Martino de Silva (ed and trans). 1912 [1994]. Epigraphia Zeylanika, Vol 1, 1904-1912. Asian Educational Services.
_____.1928 [1994]. Epigraphia Zeylanika Vol 2. 1912-1927. New Delhi. Asian Educational Services.
_____.1933 [1994]. Epigraphia Zeylanika, Vol 3, 1928-1933. New Delhi. Asian Educational Services.
Wyatt, D.K. 1994. “The ‘subtle revolution’ of King Rama I of Siam.” In Wyatt, Studies in Thai History: Collected Articles. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, pp. 131-174
