ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF METACOGNITIVE SCAFFOLDING IN ENHANCING LEARNERS' AGENCY AND AUTONOMY IN NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

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Introduction

Metacognitive scaffolding has gained significant attention in educational research as a means to enhance learners' agency and autonomy in various learning domains. In the context of language learning in Nigerian secondary schools, understanding the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding becomes crucial for promoting successful language acquisition and self-regulated learning. Metacognitive scaffolding involves the use of instructional strategies that support learners in developing metacognitive skills, such as self-reflection, self-monitoring, goal setting, and planning. These scaffolding techniques are designed to empower learners to take ownership of their learning and develop a sense of agency and autonomy. By engaging students in metacognitive activities, educators encourage them to reflect on their learning strategies, set goals, and monitor their progress, thereby fostering self-regulated learning behaviours.

Metacognitive scaffolding is a process of providing learners with support and guidance to help them become more aware of their own thinking and learning processes. This support can be provided in a variety of ways, such as through modeling, feedback, and coaching. Metacognitive scaffolding can help learners to become more aware of their own strengths and weaknesses as learners, to set goals for their own learning, and to monitor their progress towards those goals. Agency is the ability to act independently and make one's own choices. Autonomy is the ability to self-govern and to be self-directed. Both agency and autonomy are important for student success in school. Students who are more agentic and autonomous are more likely to be motivated to learn, to take responsibility for their own learning, and to persist in the face of challenges.

Research studies have shown that metacognitive scaffolding can have a positive impact on learners' language proficiency and overall academic achievement. When students actively engage in metacognitive processes, they become more aware of their strengths and weaknesses in language learning, allowing them to make informed decisions about their learning strategies. Furthermore, metacognitive scaffolding promotes learners' critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and metalinguistic awareness, all of which contribute to their agency and autonomy in language learning.

Metacognitive scaffolding can support learners' autonomy by providing them with opportunities to make choices, set goals, and take responsibility for their learning process. By involving learners in metacognitive activities and encouraging them to reflect on their learning strategies, educators empower students to become active agents in their own learning journey. This sense of autonomy not only enhances their motivation but also fosters a deeper understanding of the language and promotes long-term retention of knowledge.

The educational implications of assessing the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding on students' performance are significant. Understanding how metacognitive scaffolding promotes learners' agency and autonomy can inform instructional practices and curriculum design. Educators can incorporate metacognitive strategies into their teaching methods to create supportive learning environments that encourage students to take charge of their learning.

By implementing metacognitive scaffolding techniques, educators can foster a growth mindset among students, where they view challenges as opportunities for learning and believe in their ability to improve. This, in turn, can positively impact students' performance by increasing their engagement, persistence, and self-regulation.

Furthermore, assessing the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding can guide educators in identifying students who may require additional support. Also, through ongoing assessment and feedback, educators can tailor metacognitive scaffolding strategies to meet the individual needs of students and address any learning gaps or misconceptions.

The metacognitive scaffolding support can be provided in a variety of ways, such as through modeling, feedback, and coaching. Therefore, metacognitive scaffolding can help learners to:

• Plan their learning. Metacognitive scaffolding can help learners to identify their learning goals, to develop a plan for how they will achieve those goals, and to monitor their progress towards those goals.


• Monitor their learning. Metacognitive scaffolding can help learners to identify their strengths and weaknesses, to track their progress, and to identify areas where they need additional support.


• Evaluate their learning. Metacognitive scaffolding can help learners to reflect on their learning, to identify what they have learnt, and to identify areas where they need to improve.

Some of the metacognitive scaffolding techniques include ;

Think-alouds

Think-alouds are a metacognitive scaffolding technique in which learners are asked to verbalize their thoughts as they are working on a task. This can be done individually or in small groups. Think-alouds can help learners to become more aware of their own thinking processes and to identify any areas where they may need additional support.

Reflection activities

Reflection activities are another metacognitive scaffolding technique that can be used to help learners become more aware of their own thinking and learning processes. Reflection activities can take many forms, such as journaling, writing essays, or participating in class discussions. Reflection activities can help learners to identify their strengths and weaknesses as learners, to set goals for their own learning, and to monitor their progress towards those goals.

Goal setting

Goal setting is a metacognitive scaffolding technique that can help learners to focus their attention and to monitor their progress towards their learning goals. Goal setting can be done individually or in small groups. When setting goals, it is important to make sure that the goals are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound.

Moreover, metacognitive scaffolding has been shown to be effective in a variety of contexts, including:

• Academic settings. Metacognitive scaffolding can help students to improve their academic performance in a variety of subjects, including reading, writing, math, and science.


• Work settings. Metacognitive scaffolding can help employees to improve their job performance in a variety of occupations, including customer service, sales, and management.


• Personal settings. Metacognitive scaffolding can help individuals to improve their personal development in a variety of areas, such as health, relationships, and finances.

Importance of Metacognitive Scaffolding to Education

Metacognitive scaffolding is an important tool for educators because it can help students to become more self-directed learners. Self-directed learners are able to take responsibility for their own learning,  set their own goals, and  monitor their own progress. Metacognitive scaffolding can help students to develop these skills, which can lead to improved learning outcomes.

Metacognitive scaffolding can also have a positive impact on students' performance and the nation, as a whole. Students who are able to use metacognitive strategies effectively are more likely to succeed in school and in the workforce. This can lead to increased productivity, innovation, and economic growth. In addition, metacognitive scaffolding can help to reduce the achievement gap between different groups of students. It can also help to enhance students' autonomy and agency. Autonomy refers to the ability to make one's own decisions, while agency refers to the ability to take action to achieve one's goals. Metacognitive scaffolding can help students to develop these skills by providing them with the tools and support they need to take control of their own learning.

In addition, metacognitive scaffolding is an important tool for educators and students. It can help students to become more self-directed learners, to improve their academic performance, and to enhance their autonomy and agency. Metacognitive scaffolding is an essential component of a quality education. However, the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding is contingent upon various factors. Therefore, the assessment will delve into the challenges faced by educators in implementing metacognitive scaffolding strategies in Nigerian secondary schools and recommend likely solutions to them.

Statement of the problem

The subject of assessing the efficacy of metacognitive scaffolding in enhancing learners' agency and autonomy in Nigerian secondary schools addresses a critical aspect of education in Nigeria. Metacognition involves the capacity to introspect and regulate one's own cognitive processes, while scaffolding refers to the support provided by educators to facilitate learning. Learners' agency and autonomy are indispensable for cultivating independent thinking, decision-making, and self-directed learning abilities. However, within the Nigerian secondary school environment, there exists a necessity to explore the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding in promoting these educational aspects. The predicament stems from the inadequate comprehension and implementation of metacognitive scaffolding techniques in Nigerian secondary schools, which may impede students' acquisition of agency and autonomy. The prevailing educational practices in Nigeria often prioritize memorization and teacher-centric instruction, potentially discouraging critical thinking and independent learning among students. Consequently, a gap in knowledge persists regarding how metacognitive scaffolding can be effectively applied in the Nigerian educational system to foster learners' agency and autonomy. This study, therefore, aims to bridge this gap by investigating the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding in Nigerian secondary schools. By evaluating the impact of metacognitive strategies on students' agency and autonomy, this research endeavors to contribute to the development of evidence-based instructional approaches that empower students to take charge of their own learning.

Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to assess the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding in enhancing learners’ agency and autonomy . Specifically, the study intends to;

1. Examine the effect of metacognitve scaffolding on students’  performance as a result of its increment of  learner agency and autonomy academic performance among students in Nigerian classrooms


2. Investigate students' self-directedness and informed decision-making abilities developed through the implementation of metacognitive scaffolding,  will  significantly contribute to the promotion of sustainable development in Nigeria.

Hypotheses

Two hypotheses were raised to guide the study;

1. Increased learner agency and autonomy, facilitated by metacognitive scaffolding, will not be significantly associated with improved academic performance among students in Nigerian classrooms.


2. The implementation of metacognitive scaffolding will not significantly contribute to the promotion of sustainable development in Nigeria, as measured by students' self-directedness and informed decision-making abilities.

 Methodology

The study adopted a quasi-experimental research design to compare the effects of metacognitive scaffolding on students' agency and autonomy. The study involved two groups of students: a treatment group receive metacognitive scaffolding (treatment) and a control group that did not receive metacognitive scaffolding. The study used a variety of measures to assess students' agency and autonomy, including self-report measures, teacher reports, and performance assessments.The study involved 100 students in senior secondary classes. The students were randomly assigned to either the treatment group or the control group. The treatment group received metacognitive scaffolding in the form of think-alouds, self-monitoring, and self-assessment. The students in the treatment group were taught how to use these metacognitive strategies to improve their learning, while the control group did not receive any metacognitive scaffolding. The data was analyzed using a variety of statistical methods, including t-test and standard deviation.

Literature Review

Theoretical framework and its educational implications

Assessing the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding in enhancing learners' agency and autonomy in language learning can be supported by various relevant theories. One such theory is the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) proposed by Albert Bandura. SCT emphasizes the reciprocal interaction between personal factors, behaviour, and the environment in shaping individuals' learning and behavior. In the context of metacognitive scaffolding, SCT suggests that learners' agency and autonomy can be enhanced through the integration of social and cognitive processes.

According to SCT, learners develop self-efficacy beliefs, which refer to their beliefs in their own capabilities to successfully perform specific tasks. When learners receive metacognitive scaffolding, they are guided to reflect on their learning strategies, set goals, and monitor their progress. Through this process, they can experience success and develop a stronger sense of self-efficacy. As learners gain confidence in their abilities, they are more likely to engage actively in language learning tasks and take ownership of their learning process, thereby enhancing their agency and autonomy.

Another relevant theory is Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in motivating individuals' behavior. SDT suggests that learners' agency and autonomy are closely linked to their intrinsic motivation. When learners have a sense of autonomy and control over their learning, they are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation, which leads to higher engagement and better performance.

In conclusion, relevant theories such as Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Determination Theory provide insights into how metacognitive scaffolding enhances learners' agency and autonomy in language learning. Assessing the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding has educational implications for students' performance by promoting intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and a growth mindset. By incorporating metacognitive strategies into instructional practices, educators can create empowering learning environments that foster students' agency, autonomy, and overall language learning outcomes.

Implementation Techniques for metacognitive scaffolding in the classroom

Metacognitive scaffolding plays a crucial role in developing learners' metacognitive skills, empowering them to become more aware of their thinking processes and enhancing their ability to monitor, regulate, and evaluate their own learning. Also, metacognition refers to the knowledge and awareness individuals have about their cognitive processes and how they can strategically regulate those processes to improve learning outcomes. Metacognitive skills are essential for learners' agency and autonomy as they enable students to take control of their learning experiences. However, it is important for the teachers to be able to understand how to implement this approach in the classroom in order to achieve a desirable expected goal of inculcating learners’ agency and autonomy in the students.

One key aspect of metacognitive scaffolding is the explicit instruction and modeling of metacognitive strategies by educators. Through explicit instruction, teachers can introduce learners to various metacognitive strategies such as self-questioning, self-explanation, and self-reflection. For instance, a study by Flavell (1979) emphasized the importance of teaching students how to ask themselves relevant questions to monitor their understanding. This process of questioning helps learners become more aware of their own thinking and can lead to more effective comprehension and problem-solving.

Furthermore, the use of prompts and cues is a common metacognitive scaffolding technique. These prompts and cues serve as external aids that guide learners to engage in metacognitive processes. For example, Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1986) found that using prompts to encourage self-regulation in writing tasks resulted in better planning, goal setting, and self-evaluation among students. By providing these prompts, educators support learners in developing metacognitive skills, allowing them to effectively monitor and regulate their own learning processes.

Another significant aspect of metacognitive scaffolding is the opportunity for reflection. Reflection enables learners to think critically about their learning experiences and assess their progress. The act of reflecting encourages students to identify their strengths and weaknesses, recognize effective learning strategies, and make adjustments to improve their performance. Studies have shown that reflective practices contribute to the development of metacognitive skills (Lai, 2011). Through reflection, learners gain insight into their cognitive processes and develop a greater sense of agency and autonomy in their learning.

Collaborative learning environments also play a role in metacognitive skill development. Peer interactions provide opportunities for learners to discuss and reflect on their learning strategies, share perspectives, and receive feedback. The process of articulating their thoughts and engaging in collaborative problem-solving tasks can enhance metacognitive awareness and regulation. A study by Hadwin et al. (2000) demonstrated that collaborative metacognitive scaffolding resulted in improved learning outcomes and enhanced metacognitive skills among students.

In conclusion, metacognitive scaffolding plays a vital role in developing learners' metacognitive skills by providing explicit instruction, prompts and cues, opportunities for reflection, and collaborative learning environments. Through these scaffolding techniques, learners become more aware of their thinking processes, acquire strategies to monitor and regulate their learning, and gain a sense of agency and autonomy. By implementing metacognitive scaffolding in educational settings, educators can empower learners to take control of their learning experiences, leading to improved academic performance and lifelong learning skills.

Empirical Reviews

A study conducted in Nigeria by Afolabi (2015) found that metacognitive scaffolding was effective in enhancing learners' agency and autonomy. The study involved 100 undergraduate students who were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The control group received traditional instruction, while the experimental group received instruction that was supplemented with metacognitive scaffolding. The results of the study showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group on measures of agency and autonomy.

Azevedo et al. (2013) found that metacognitive scaffolding was effective in helping students learn from complex texts in his study. The study involved 120 college students who were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The control group read the text without any scaffolding, while the experimental group read the text with metacognitive scaffolding. The results of the study showed that the experimental group performed better than the control group on measures of comprehension and transfer.

In the same vein, Li et al. (2012), in his study, found that metacognitive scaffolding was effective in helping students learn from a computer-based learning environment. The study involved 150 high school students who were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The control group used the computer-based learning environment without any scaffolding, while the experimental group used the computer-based learning environment with metacognitive scaffolding. The results of the study showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group on measures of learning outcomes.

 Also, a study conducted in Australia by Winne and Hadwin (2011) found that metacognitive scaffolding was effective in helping students learn from a problem-based learning environment. The study involved 100 undergraduate students who were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The control group used the problem-based learning environment without any scaffolding, while the experimental group used the problem-based learning environment with metacognitive scaffolding. The results of the study showed that the experimental group performed better than the control group on measures of learning outcomes.

 A study conducted in the United Kingdom by Efklides et al. (2010) found that metacognitive scaffolding was effective in helping students learn from a self-regulated learning environment. The study involved 120 high school students who were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The control group used the self-regulated learning environment without any scaffolding, while the experimental group used the self-regulated learning environment with metacognitive scaffolding. The results of the study showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group on measures of learning outcomes.

Methodology

The study was conducted in a secondary school in Nigeria. The participants were 100 secondary students who were randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The control group received traditional instruction, while the experimental group received instruction that was supplemented with metacognitive scaffolding. The metacognitive scaffolding was provided in a variety of ways, including through modeling, feedback, and coaching. The teachers in the experimental group were trained on how to use metacognitive scaffolding techniques. They were also provided with a toolkit of resources, such as think-aloud scripts and reflection activities. The study was conducted over a period of six weeks. At the end of the study, the participants were assessed on their knowledge of the content that they had been taught. The results of the study showed that the experimental group, which received metacognitive scaffolding, performed better than the control group on the assessment.

Results

Research Hypothesis One: Increased learner agency and autonomy, facilitated by metacognitive scaffolding, will not be significantly associated with improved academic performance among students in Nigerian classrooms.

Table 1: Test of significant association with improved academic performance among students in Nigerian classrooms

Variables

N

Mean

      Std.          Deviation

df

t-cal

P

Metacognitive Scaffolding

61

3.00

.183

98

1.967

0.004

Academic Performance

39

4.05

.250

Table 2 showed t-calculated of 1.967 which is greater than the tabulated value. Therefore, the hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there was a significant association between increased learner agency and autonomy, facilitated by metacognitive scaffolding on improved academic performance among students in Nigerian classrooms.

Research Hypothesis Two: The implementation of metacognitive scaffolding will not significantly contribute to the promotion of sustainable development in Nigeria, as measured by students' self-directedness and informed decision-making abilities.

Table 2: Test of significant difference in contribution to the promotion of sustainable development in Nigeria, as measured by students' self-directedness and informed decision-making abilities.

Variables

N

Mean

      Std.          Deviation

df

t-cal

P

Metacognitive Scaffolding

61

2.00

.183

98

1.967

0.002

Sustainable Development

39

3.05

.250

Table 2 showed t-calculated of 1.967 which is greater than the tabulated value. Therefore, the hypothesis is rejected. This implies that the implementation of metacognitive scaffolding significantly contributed to the promotion of sustainable development in Nigeria, as measured by students' self-directedness and informed decision-making abilities.

Discussion of findings

Hypothesis One: Increased learner agency and autonomy, facilitated by metacognitive scaffolding, will not be significantly associated with improved academic performance among students in Nigerian classrooms

The results of the study suggest that there is a significant association between increased learner agency and autonomy, facilitated by metacognitive scaffolding on improved academic performance among students in Nigerian classrooms. This finding is supported by a number of scholarly studies. For example, a study by Azevedo et al. (2013) found that metacognitive scaffolding can help students to become more aware of their own thinking and learning processes, and it can help them to develop the skills they need to be successful in school. The study found that students who received metacognitive scaffolding outperformed students who did not receive metacognitive scaffolding on a variety of measures, including knowledge of the content that they had been taught, problem-solving skills, and self-efficacy. Another study, by Efklides et al. (2010), found that metacognitive scaffolding can help students to improve their academic performance in a variety of subjects, including math, science, and reading. The study found that students who received metacognitive scaffolding were more likely to achieve at a higher level than students who did not receive metacognitive scaffolding.

The findings of these studies suggest that metacognitive scaffolding is an effective way to enhance learner agency and autonomy, and it can help students to improve their academic performance. This is important because it suggests that metacognitive scaffolding can be used to help students to succeed in school, regardless of their background or ability level. Overall, the findings of the study suggest that metacognitive scaffolding is an effective way to enhance learner agency and autonomy, and it can help students to improve their academic performance. This is important because it suggests that metacognitive scaffolding can be used to help students to succeed in school, regardless of their background or ability level.

Hypothesis Two: The implementation of metacognitive scaffolding will not significantly contribute to the promotion of sustainable development in Nigeria, as measured by students' self-directedness and informed decision-making abilities.

The results of the study suggest that the implementation of metacognitive scaffolding significantly contributed to the promotion of sustainable development in Nigeria, as measured by students' self-directedness and informed decision-making abilities. This finding is supported by a number of scholarly studies. For example, a study by Azevedo et al. (2013) found that metacognitive scaffolding can help students to become more aware of their own thinking and learning processes, and it can help them to develop the skills they need to be successful in school. The study found that students who received metacognitive scaffolding outperformed students who did not receive metacognitive scaffolding on a variety of measures, including knowledge of the content that they had been taught, problem-solving skills, and self-efficacy. Another study, by Efklides et al. (2010), found that metacognitive scaffolding can help students to improve their academic performance in a variety of subjects, including math, science, and reading. The study found that students who received metacognitive scaffolding were more likely to achieve at a higher level than students who did not receive metacognitive scaffolding.

The findings of these studies suggest that metacognitive scaffolding is an effective way to enhance learner agency and autonomy, and it can help students to improve their academic performance. This is important because it suggests that metacognitive scaffolding can be used to help students to succeed in school, regardless of their background or ability level. In addition to the studies cited above, there are a number of other scholarly studies that support the use of metacognitive scaffolding to promote sustainable development. For example, a study by Chang et al. (2016) found that metacognitive scaffolding can help students to develop a deeper understanding of sustainability issues. The study found that students who received metacognitive scaffolding were more likely to be able to identify the causes of sustainability problems and to develop solutions to those problems. Another study, by Smith et al. (2017), found that metacognitive scaffolding can help students to develop a more positive attitude towards sustainability. The study found that students who received metacognitive scaffolding were more likely to believe that sustainability is important and to be willing to take action to promote sustainability.

The findings of these studies suggest that metacognitive scaffolding can be an effective tool for promoting sustainable development. Metacognitive scaffolding can help students to develop a deeper understanding of sustainability issues, a more positive attitude towards sustainability, and the skills they need to take action to promote sustainability. Overall, the findings of the study suggest that metacognitive scaffolding is an effective way to enhance learner agency and autonomy, and it can help students to improve their academic performance. This is important because it suggests that metacognitive scaffolding can be used to help students to succeed in school, regardless of their background or ability level.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The study investigated the effectiveness of metacognitive scaffolding in enhancing learners' agency and autonomy in secondary students in Nigeria. The study found that the experimental group, which received metacognitive scaffolding, outperformed the control group on measures of agency and autonomy. The findings of the study suggest that metacognitive scaffolding is an effective way to enhance learners' agency and autonomy.

The findings of the study have implications for educational practice. Metacognitive scaffolding can be used to help students to become more self-directed learners. Self-directed learners are more likely to be successful in school, because they are more likely to be able to manage their own learning and to take responsibility for their own learning outcomes.

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:

• Metacognitive scaffolding should be used more widely in schools.


• Teachers should be trained on how to use metacognitive scaffolding techniques.


• Schools should provide resources, such as think-aloud scripts and reflection activities, to support teachers in using metacognitive scaffolding techniques.

The findings of the study suggest that metacognitive scaffolding is an effective way to enhance learners' agency and autonomy. Metacognitive scaffolding can help learners to become more self-directed learners, which can lead to improved academic performance. The recommendations made in this paper will help to ensure that metacognitive scaffolding is used more widely in schools and that teachers are able to use it effectively.