Parental Nurturing Practices and Behavioral Adjustment among Kenyan Learners
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Published:
May 30, 2021
Keywords:
behavioral adjustment Kenya parental nurturing practices primary school learners
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Abstract
There have been many cases of behavioral maladjustments among learners in Kenyan schools. These problems for many years have been a threat to the safety and tranquility enjoyed by members of the families, schools, and community. This study examined the variance in behavioral adjustment among learners that can be accounted for by parental nurturing practices. The study adopted ex-post facto research design. A sample size of 374 learners was obtained using stratified sampling and simple random sampling techniques. The parental nurturing practices scale and strengths and difficulties questionnaire were used to obtain data from learners. Split half method was used to establish the reliability of questionnaires and a correlation coefficient of 0.80 was reported. Both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques were used to analyze data. The results from the multiple regression model reached statistical significance implying that the model was highly significant and adequate enough to explain the variance in overall behavior adjustment among learners [F(4, 351) =101.194, R2 =.53, p <.05]. Together, the parental nurturing practices explained 53% of the variance in the overall behaviour adjustment among learners in Kenyan primary schools. Of the four parental nurturing practices, the parental warmth had the highest impact on enhancing behavior adjustment, β = .39, t(356) = 6.87, p < .005, while parental acceptance made the least contribution to explain the variability of the model, β = .15, t(356) = 3.24, p < .005. The findings have implications for teachers, parents, school principals, community leaders, and the Ministry of Education in Kenya to enhance parental education to help address the issues of behavioral maladjustments among learners.
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Monda, E. A., Aloka, P. J. ., & Mwebi, B. . (2021). Parental Nurturing Practices and Behavioral Adjustment among Kenyan Learners. The Journal of Behavioral Science, 16(2), 28–41. Retrieved from https://so06.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/IJBS/article/view/249236
Section
Research Articles
References
The study concludes that of the parental nurturing practices, parental warmth had the highest and strong positive correlation, while parental control the least moderate positive correlations to learners’ behavioural adjustment. The multiple regression model was adequate to predict overall behaviour adjustment, since 53.6% of the variability in behaviour adjustment among the primary school learners is explained by the parental child nurturing practices factored in the model. That is, other factors could account for about 46% of the model. Central to the process of the socialisation of children are the parental nurturing practises which children experience within family settings. Within these family contexts, children gradually internalise social standards and expectations which facilitate self-regulation skills and responsibility. Further, it can be inferred that parental nurturing practises which are fundamental in moulding children’s behaviour are defective in many families.
References
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Abesha, A. G. (2012). Effects of parenting styles, academic self-efficacy, and achievement motivation on the academic achievement of university students in Ethiopia. Doctor of Philosophy (Psychology). Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia.
Andrew, G., Maria, M., & Kathryn, H. (2016). Reductions in parental use of corporal punishment on pre-school children following participation in the moms’ empowerment program. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5(6), 1552-1568. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516651627
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. K. (2010). Introduction to Research in Education (8th ed.). Wadsworth.
Arslan, G., Yıldırım, M., & Zangeneh, M. (2021). Coronavirus anxiety and psychological adjustment in college students: Exploring the role of college belongingness and social media addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00460-4
Baumrind, D., Larzelere, R., & Owens, E. B. (2010). Effects of preschool parents’ power assertive patterns and practices on adolescent development. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10, 157-201.
Bosiakoh, T. A., & Andoh, P. K. (2010). Differential association theory and juvenile. Adolescence, 43(171), 649-660. http://www.academicjournals.org/ijsa
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss, Volume I, Attachment (2nd ed.). Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss, Volume II, Separation Anxiety and Anger. Basic Books.
Cemaliye, D. (2017). Predictors of adolescent students’ psychological problems: The mediating role of paternal rejection in Turkish Cypriot sample. Journal of Human Sciences, 14(3), 2653–2665. https://j-humansciences.com/ojs/index.php/IJHS/article/view/4628
Changalwa, N. C., Ndurumo, M. M., Barasa, L. P., & Poipoi, W. M. (2012). The relationship between parenting styles and alcohol abuse among college students in Kenya. Greener Journal of Educational Research, 2(2), 13- 20. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1040.4617&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Chu, H. S., & Lee, H. (2019). Relationship between paternal psychological distress and involvement in childcare among fathers of preschool-aged children: Mediating effect of maternal psychological distress. BMC Pediatrics, 19(1), 308-316. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-019-1688-z
Daniels, V. (2017). A Study of the Effects of Family Structure and Autonomy-Supportive Parenting on the Adjustment of First Year University Students. Published MA Thesis, University of the Western Cape. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/handle/11394/5623
Dekel, B., Abrahams, N., & Andipatin, M. (2018). Exploring adverse parent-child relationships from the perspective of convicted child murderers: A South African qualitative study. PLoS ONE, 13(5), e0196772. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196772
Dinero, R. E., Conger, R. D., Shaver, P. R., Widaman, K. F., & Larsen-R. D., (2008). Influence of family of origin and adult romantic partners on romantic attachment security. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(4), 622-632. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012506
Dunlap, G., & Horner, R. H. (2006). The applied behavior analytic heritage of PBS: A dynamic model of action-oriented research. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8(1), 58–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007060080010701
Evans, S. Z., Simons, L. G., & Simons, R. L. (2012). The effect of corporal punishment and verbal abuse on delinquency: Mediating mechanisms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(8), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9755-x
Fraley, R. C. (2002). Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modelling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(2), 123–151. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0602_03
Friesen, M. D., Horwood, L. J., Fergusson, D. M., & Woodward, L. J. (2016). Exposure to parental separation in childhood and later parenting quality as an adult: Evidence from a 30-year longitudinal study. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 10(3), 1111-1261. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12610
Goetzinger, T. E. A. (2014). Association Between Parenting Processes and Child Behavior Outcomes: The Moderating and Mediating Role of Child Characteristics. Honors Program Theses, University of Northern Iowa. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/222988025.pdf
Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric Properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 40(11),1337-1345. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200111000-00015
Sharma, G., & Pandey, N. (2015). Parenting styles and its effect on self-esteem of adolescents. The International Journal of Indian Psychology, 3(1), 28-39.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2018). Multivariate Data Analysis (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Haslam, D., Poniman, C., Filus, A., Sumargi, A., & Boediman, L. (2020). Parenting style, child emotion regulation and behavioral problems: The moderating role of cultural values in Australia and Indonesia. Marriage & Family Review, 56(4), 320-342. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2020.1712573
Hess, K. M., & Drowns, R. W. (2010). Juvenile Justice (5th ed.). Cengage.
Hou, W. K., Lee, T. M., & Liang, L. (2021). Psychiatric symptoms and behavioral adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from two population-representative cohorts. Translational Psychiatry, 11, 174 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01279-w
Hulya, G. O. (2014). Predictor effect of parental acceptance-rejection levels on resilience of preschool children. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, 622-628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.592
Johns, A. L., Wallace, E. R., Collett, B. R., Kapp-Simon, K. A., Drake, A. F., Heike, C. L., Kinter, S. L., Luquetti, D. V., Magee, L., Norton, S., Sie, K., & Speltz, M. L. (2021). Behavioral adjustment of preschool children with and without Craniofacial Microsomia. The Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal, 58(1),42-53. https://doi.org/10.1177/1055665620947987
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008). Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Approaches (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
Kirby, J. N. (2020). Nurturing family environments for children: Compassion-focused parenting as a form of parenting intervention. Education Sciences, 10(1), 3-10. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10010003
Kostelny, K., Wessells, M., & Ondoro, K. (2014). Community-based child protection mechanisms in Kisii/Nyamira Area: A rapid ethnographic study in two rural sites in Kenya. Interagency Learning Initiative on Community-Based Child Protection Mechanisms and Child Protection Systems.
Lim, H. J., Rozumah, B., & Tan, J. (2013). Perceived parental warmth and depression in early adolescents: path analysis on the role of self-esteem as a mediator. Social Sciences & Humanities Journal, 21(1), 165 – 178. http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/28220/
Li, J. B., Mo, P. K. H., Lau, J. T. F., Su, X. F., Zhang, X., Wu, A. M. S., Mai, J. C., & Chen, Y. X. (2018). Online social networking addiction and depression: the results from a large-scale prospective cohort study in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(3), 686–696.
Lungarini, A. (2015). Parenting styles and their relationship with anxiety in children. Open Access Master's Theses. Paper 635. http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/theses/635
McCabe, P. C., & Altamura, M. (2011). Empirically valid strategies to improve social and emotional competence of preschool children. Psychology in the Schools, 48(5), 513-540. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20570
Mendi, E., & Eldeleklioglu, J. (2016). Parental conditional regard, subjective well-being and self- esteem: The mediating role of perfectionism. Psychology, 7(5), 1276-1295. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2016.710130
Mucmahron, S. (2009). Wild learners Trouble School. Herald Sun September.
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative Approaches. African Centre for Technology Studies.
Noriega, I. (2015). Examining parental processes and psychological distress outcomes of children’s and adolescents’ exposure to violence in a nationally representative sample. Masters of Science Thesis, Human Development and Family Studies. Texas Tech University.
Ozdemir, Y., & Sagkal, A. S. (2019). Recalled parenting practices and psychological distress in Turkish emerging adults: The role of self-criticism. Psychological Reports, 122(5), 1720-1743. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118798623.
Paloma, C., Rosa, M. V., Ana, M., Magaz, M., & Santed, B. (2017). Perceived parental child rearing and attachment as predictors of anxiety and depressive disorder symptoms in children: The mediational role of attachment. Psychiatry Research, 253, 287-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.04.015
Richards, B. (2014). Exploring the association between parenting practices and aggressive behaviour in children. http://www.psychology.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/117/Bernadette.Richards.pdf
Ronald, P., Rohner, Parminder, P., & Masoumah, I. (2010). Perceived teachers’ acceptance, parental acceptance, behavioral control, school conduct, and psychological adjustment among school-age children in Kuwait. Cross-Cultural Research, 44(3), 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397110366935.
Samuel, T. G. Rejoice, S., & Gabriel, E. (2015). Child delinquency and learners’ academic performance in Fumesua Municipal assembly primary school in the Ejisu- Juaben Municipality, Ashanti region, Ghana. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(12), 56-76. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080668.pdf
Schneider, M. (2016). Parental depression and adolescents' internalizing symptoms: The role of attachment to physically ill and healthy parents. Master Thesis Clinical Psychology Institute of Psychology Leiden University.
Schaefer, E. S. (1965). Children's reports of parental behavior: An inventory. Child Development, 36(2), 413–424. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126465
Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Shafer, K., Olofson, E. L., & Kamp Dush, C. M. (2021). Fathers’ parenting and co-parenting behavior in dual-earner families: Contributions of traditional masculinity, father nurturing role beliefs, and maternal gate closing. Psychology of Men & Masculinities. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000336
Skinner, E. A., Wellborn, J. G., & Regan, C. (1986). The “Parents as Social Context Questionnaire” (PASCQ): Parent-and Child-Reports of Parent Involvement, Structure, and Autonomy Support. Rochester.
Shepler, D., & Woosley, S. (2012). Understanding the early integration experiences of college students with disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 25(1), 37-50. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ970018.pdf
Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early development. National Academy Press.
Simoes, C., Matos, M. G., & Batista-Foguet, J. M., (2008). Juvenile delinquency: Analysis of risk and protective factors using quantitative and qualitative methods. Cognition, Brain, Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 7(4), 389-408.
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References
African Population and Health Research Center [APHRC]. (2002). Population and Health Dynamics in Nairobi’s Informal Settlements: Report of the Nairobi Cross-sectional Slums Survey (NCSS). https://aphrc.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Report-The-Nairobi-Cross-sectional-Slums-Survey-NCSS-2000-1.pdf
Abesha, A. G. (2012). Effects of parenting styles, academic self-efficacy, and achievement motivation on the academic achievement of university students in Ethiopia. Doctor of Philosophy (Psychology). Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia.
Andrew, G., Maria, M., & Kathryn, H. (2016). Reductions in parental use of corporal punishment on pre-school children following participation in the moms’ empowerment program. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5(6), 1552-1568. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516651627
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. K. (2010). Introduction to Research in Education (8th ed.). Wadsworth.
Arslan, G., Yıldırım, M., & Zangeneh, M. (2021). Coronavirus anxiety and psychological adjustment in college students: Exploring the role of college belongingness and social media addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00460-4
Baumrind, D., Larzelere, R., & Owens, E. B. (2010). Effects of preschool parents’ power assertive patterns and practices on adolescent development. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10, 157-201.
Bosiakoh, T. A., & Andoh, P. K. (2010). Differential association theory and juvenile. Adolescence, 43(171), 649-660. http://www.academicjournals.org/ijsa
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss, Volume I, Attachment (2nd ed.). Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and Loss, Volume II, Separation Anxiety and Anger. Basic Books.
Cemaliye, D. (2017). Predictors of adolescent students’ psychological problems: The mediating role of paternal rejection in Turkish Cypriot sample. Journal of Human Sciences, 14(3), 2653–2665. https://j-humansciences.com/ojs/index.php/IJHS/article/view/4628
Changalwa, N. C., Ndurumo, M. M., Barasa, L. P., & Poipoi, W. M. (2012). The relationship between parenting styles and alcohol abuse among college students in Kenya. Greener Journal of Educational Research, 2(2), 13- 20. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1040.4617&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Chu, H. S., & Lee, H. (2019). Relationship between paternal psychological distress and involvement in childcare among fathers of preschool-aged children: Mediating effect of maternal psychological distress. BMC Pediatrics, 19(1), 308-316. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-019-1688-z
Daniels, V. (2017). A Study of the Effects of Family Structure and Autonomy-Supportive Parenting on the Adjustment of First Year University Students. Published MA Thesis, University of the Western Cape. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/xmlui/handle/11394/5623
Dekel, B., Abrahams, N., & Andipatin, M. (2018). Exploring adverse parent-child relationships from the perspective of convicted child murderers: A South African qualitative study. PLoS ONE, 13(5), e0196772. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0196772
Dinero, R. E., Conger, R. D., Shaver, P. R., Widaman, K. F., & Larsen-R. D., (2008). Influence of family of origin and adult romantic partners on romantic attachment security. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(4), 622-632. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012506
Dunlap, G., & Horner, R. H. (2006). The applied behavior analytic heritage of PBS: A dynamic model of action-oriented research. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8(1), 58–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007060080010701
Evans, S. Z., Simons, L. G., & Simons, R. L. (2012). The effect of corporal punishment and verbal abuse on delinquency: Mediating mechanisms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(8), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9755-x
Fraley, R. C. (2002). Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modelling of developmental mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6(2), 123–151. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0602_03
Friesen, M. D., Horwood, L. J., Fergusson, D. M., & Woodward, L. J. (2016). Exposure to parental separation in childhood and later parenting quality as an adult: Evidence from a 30-year longitudinal study. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 10(3), 1111-1261. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12610
Goetzinger, T. E. A. (2014). Association Between Parenting Processes and Child Behavior Outcomes: The Moderating and Mediating Role of Child Characteristics. Honors Program Theses, University of Northern Iowa. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/222988025.pdf
Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric Properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 40(11),1337-1345. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200111000-00015
Sharma, G., & Pandey, N. (2015). Parenting styles and its effect on self-esteem of adolescents. The International Journal of Indian Psychology, 3(1), 28-39.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2018). Multivariate Data Analysis (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Haslam, D., Poniman, C., Filus, A., Sumargi, A., & Boediman, L. (2020). Parenting style, child emotion regulation and behavioral problems: The moderating role of cultural values in Australia and Indonesia. Marriage & Family Review, 56(4), 320-342. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2020.1712573
Hess, K. M., & Drowns, R. W. (2010). Juvenile Justice (5th ed.). Cengage.
Hou, W. K., Lee, T. M., & Liang, L. (2021). Psychiatric symptoms and behavioral adjustment during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from two population-representative cohorts. Translational Psychiatry, 11, 174 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01279-w
Hulya, G. O. (2014). Predictor effect of parental acceptance-rejection levels on resilience of preschool children. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 174, 622-628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.592
Johns, A. L., Wallace, E. R., Collett, B. R., Kapp-Simon, K. A., Drake, A. F., Heike, C. L., Kinter, S. L., Luquetti, D. V., Magee, L., Norton, S., Sie, K., & Speltz, M. L. (2021). Behavioral adjustment of preschool children with and without Craniofacial Microsomia. The Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal, 58(1),42-53. https://doi.org/10.1177/1055665620947987
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008). Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Approaches (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
Kirby, J. N. (2020). Nurturing family environments for children: Compassion-focused parenting as a form of parenting intervention. Education Sciences, 10(1), 3-10. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10010003
Kostelny, K., Wessells, M., & Ondoro, K. (2014). Community-based child protection mechanisms in Kisii/Nyamira Area: A rapid ethnographic study in two rural sites in Kenya. Interagency Learning Initiative on Community-Based Child Protection Mechanisms and Child Protection Systems.
Lim, H. J., Rozumah, B., & Tan, J. (2013). Perceived parental warmth and depression in early adolescents: path analysis on the role of self-esteem as a mediator. Social Sciences & Humanities Journal, 21(1), 165 – 178. http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/28220/
Li, J. B., Mo, P. K. H., Lau, J. T. F., Su, X. F., Zhang, X., Wu, A. M. S., Mai, J. C., & Chen, Y. X. (2018). Online social networking addiction and depression: the results from a large-scale prospective cohort study in Chinese adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(3), 686–696.
Lungarini, A. (2015). Parenting styles and their relationship with anxiety in children. Open Access Master's Theses. Paper 635. http://digitalcommons.uri.edu/theses/635
McCabe, P. C., & Altamura, M. (2011). Empirically valid strategies to improve social and emotional competence of preschool children. Psychology in the Schools, 48(5), 513-540. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20570
Mendi, E., & Eldeleklioglu, J. (2016). Parental conditional regard, subjective well-being and self- esteem: The mediating role of perfectionism. Psychology, 7(5), 1276-1295. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2016.710130
Mucmahron, S. (2009). Wild learners Trouble School. Herald Sun September.
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative Approaches. African Centre for Technology Studies.
Noriega, I. (2015). Examining parental processes and psychological distress outcomes of children’s and adolescents’ exposure to violence in a nationally representative sample. Masters of Science Thesis, Human Development and Family Studies. Texas Tech University.
Ozdemir, Y., & Sagkal, A. S. (2019). Recalled parenting practices and psychological distress in Turkish emerging adults: The role of self-criticism. Psychological Reports, 122(5), 1720-1743. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118798623.
Paloma, C., Rosa, M. V., Ana, M., Magaz, M., & Santed, B. (2017). Perceived parental child rearing and attachment as predictors of anxiety and depressive disorder symptoms in children: The mediational role of attachment. Psychiatry Research, 253, 287-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.04.015
Richards, B. (2014). Exploring the association between parenting practices and aggressive behaviour in children. http://www.psychology.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/117/Bernadette.Richards.pdf
Ronald, P., Rohner, Parminder, P., & Masoumah, I. (2010). Perceived teachers’ acceptance, parental acceptance, behavioral control, school conduct, and psychological adjustment among school-age children in Kuwait. Cross-Cultural Research, 44(3), 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397110366935.
Samuel, T. G. Rejoice, S., & Gabriel, E. (2015). Child delinquency and learners’ academic performance in Fumesua Municipal assembly primary school in the Ejisu- Juaben Municipality, Ashanti region, Ghana. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(12), 56-76. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080668.pdf
Schneider, M. (2016). Parental depression and adolescents' internalizing symptoms: The role of attachment to physically ill and healthy parents. Master Thesis Clinical Psychology Institute of Psychology Leiden University.
Schaefer, E. S. (1965). Children's reports of parental behavior: An inventory. Child Development, 36(2), 413–424. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126465
Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Shafer, K., Olofson, E. L., & Kamp Dush, C. M. (2021). Fathers’ parenting and co-parenting behavior in dual-earner families: Contributions of traditional masculinity, father nurturing role beliefs, and maternal gate closing. Psychology of Men & Masculinities. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000336
Skinner, E. A., Wellborn, J. G., & Regan, C. (1986). The “Parents as Social Context Questionnaire” (PASCQ): Parent-and Child-Reports of Parent Involvement, Structure, and Autonomy Support. Rochester.
Shepler, D., & Woosley, S. (2012). Understanding the early integration experiences of college students with disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 25(1), 37-50. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ970018.pdf
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